Deck 2: Theories

Question 1

Theories can produce _____, generate discoveries, and offer practical guidance.

Answer 1

hypotheses

Question 2

Name four kinds of developmental theories and describe how they have contributed to science's understanding of human development.

Answer 2

Cognitive theory helps scientists to understand how intellectual processes and thinking affect people's actions. Behavioral theory (or behaviorism) has shown the effect that immediate responses and associations have on human learning. Sociocultural theories show how one's culture, social interaction, and environment impact one's behaviors. Psychoanalytic theory has made scientists aware of the importance of social and emotional experiences during early childhood. Universal theories stress those things that all humans share despite their culture, location, or era (such as the desire for safety and love).

Question 3

Define eclectic perspective and provide an example of how a clinician might use this approach to explain a case of childhood aggression.

Answer 3

The approach taken by most developmentalists is to apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory. Childhood aggression should be explained from the perspective of at least two competing theories: psychoanalytic (e.g., inner drives), behaviorism (e.g., learned from observation), cognitive (e.g., beliefs that aggression is good or helpful), sociocultural (e.g., may need to be aggressive to be successful in one's culture), and universal (e.g., humans evolved to be aggressive in order to survive and reproduce).

Question 4

List Piaget's four stages of cognitive development in order, and explain what Piaget believed causes intellectual advancement.

Question 5

Theories can produce hypotheses, generate _____, and offer practical guidance.

Question 6

Psychoanalytic theories hold that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in _____, underlie human behavior.

Question 7

According to Freud, the _____ stage is the first stage of psychosexual development.

Question 8

Theories can produce hypotheses, generate discoveries, and offer practical _____.

Question 9

Describe what Vygotsky meant by "apprenticeship in thinking" and "guided participation" and give an example of each.

Question 10

A _____ is an explanation of facts and observations defined by a set of concepts and ideas that organize phenomena.

Question 11

Freud's theory of psychosexual development and Erikson's theory of psychosocial development are two examples of psychoanalytic theory. First, describe two similarities of the theories. Second, describe two differences between the theories.

Question 12

Jason learned that emotions impact performance. From this, he developed the idea that students who are sad when they take a test will perform poorly compared to those who take the test while happy. In this example, Jason used a theory to produce a _____.

Question 13

What is a developmental theory? Identify the three things discussed in the text that a theory can do.

Question 14

A _____ theory is a systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change over time.

Question 15

Define Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and how it relates to learning. Provide two examples.

Question 16

First, describe classical and operant conditioning. Second, name the researcher who identified classical conditioning and the researcher who identified operant conditioning.

Question 17

The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is inner drives, motives, and _____ needs.

Question 18

Describe the two biologically based drives associated with evolutionary theory and explain how selective adaptation relates to this theory.

Question 19

Explain social learning theory. Where does it come from, and what does it emphasize? Then describe the concept of modeling and indicate at least three reasons that a model is likely to be copied.

Question 20

Define information-processing theory. According to this theory, what is the process that underlies cognition?

Question 21

Behaviorism is a type of _____ theory.

Question 22

Vygotsky developed the concept of _____, which is the method used by parents, teachers, and entire societies to teach novices the skills and habits expected within their culture.

Question 23

After visiting the doctor's office several times and receiving a shot each time, Erin now tenses and cries when her mother pulls into the doctor's parking lot. Erin's response is due to _____ conditioning.

Question 24

The _____ theory was inspired by the input, programming, memory, and output of a computer.

Question 25

_____ is the psychoanalytic theorist who described eight stages of human development.

Question 26

Tim watches his dad mow the lawn. After a few minutes, Tim takes a toy lawnmower and begins following his dad, row by row. Tim is _____ his dad's behavior.

Question 27

Vygotsky said that each person develops with the guidance of more skilled members of the society, who are tutors or mentors in a(n) _____ in thinking.

Question 28

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into old ideas through the type of adaptation known as _____.

Question 29

Within his theory of psychosocial development, _____ emphasized relationships to family and culture at each stage of the theory.

Question 30

The _____ theory states that every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people.

Question 31

The central thesis of _____ theory is that human development results from the dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society.

Question 32

Tanner received praise for his aggressive defense in the basketball game. This encouraged him to play aggressive defense in the next game. In this example, praise was operating as a _____ for Tanner.

Question 33

With respect to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, _____ is when new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into old ideas.

Question 34

Piaget's stages of cognitive development include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and _____ operational stages.

Question 35

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, old ideas are restructured to include new experiences through the type of adaptation known as _____.

Question 36

The process by which a neutral stimulus is gradually linked to a meaningful stimulus is called _____.

Question 37

When others copy the actions that a person performs, they are _____ certain behaviors.

Question 38

According to Piaget, humans seek cognitive _____.

Question 39

Freud believed that by _____, psychosexual development was complete.

Question 40

In _____ conditioning, a person takes an action that is followed by a consequence.

Question 41

A systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change over time is a _____.

A) hypothesis
B) developmental theory
C) conclusion
D) stage

Question 42

Lilly's 12-year-old son used to get out of bed easily and early on school days, but lately he has been hard to wake. While reading a parenting book, Lilly came across the theory of "delayed phase of preference," in which sleep patterns shift when young people start to go through puberty. In this example, a theory helped Lilly _____.

A) design an experiment
B) change her own behavior
C) generate a discovery
D) gain practical guidance

Question 43

Each developmental theory has received severe criticism. The theory of _____ has been criticized for being too mechanistic.

Question 44

Psychoanalytic theory originated with _____.

A) Piaget
B) Freud
C) Watson
D) Erikson

Question 45

In class, Sam learned that some theorists link happiness to productivity. From this, he developed the thought that happy employees in a factory will produce more products per hour. In this example, Sam's theory led him to _____.

A) produce a hypothesis
B) solve a developmental problem
C) generate a discovery
D) gain practical guidance

Question 46

Psychoanalytic theories contend that _____ underlie human behavior.

A) unconscious needs
B) learned associations
C) a history of reinforcements and punishments
D) instincts inherited from ancestors

Question 47

Each stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of development is characterized by a conflict associated with different parts of the body. According to Freud, how people experience and resolve each conflict influences personality _____.

A) throughout life because early years provide the foundation of adult behavior
B) throughout life only if some of the conflicts are successfully resolved
C) only in childhood, with new conflicts emerging later that shape adult identity
D) at a particular stage of development

Question 48

Each developmental theory has received severe criticism. The _____ theory has been criticized for undervaluing emotions.

Question 49

The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is _____.

A) observable behaviors
B) inner drives, deep motives, and unconscious needs
C) a person's ideas and beliefs
D) observations that individuals make about their environments

Question 50

Each developmental theory has received severe criticism. The _____ theory has been criticized for ignoring the power of current morals, laws, and norms.

Question 51

Each developmental theory has received severe criticism. The _____ theory has been criticized for being too subjective.

Question 52

Which is the correct order of the stages of Freud's psychosexual theory, beginning with infancy and ending with the preschool years?

A) oral, anal, genital
B) anal, oral, phallic
C) oral, anal, phallic
D) phallic, oral, anal

Question 53

According to Freud's psychosexual theory, which stage centers around breast-feeding and weaning?

A) oral stage
B) anal stage
C) phallic stage
D) genital stage

Question 54

Theories can do which of the following?

A) produce hypotheses
B) solve developmental problems
C) quantify which behaviors are normal
D) establish facts

Question 55

An explanation of facts and observations defined by a set of concepts and ideas that organize phenomena is a _____.

A) hypothesis
B) theory
C) conclusion
D) development

Question 56

Dr. Fine is trying to explain childhood aggression. He says that children might learn aggression by observing it, but they also may be expressing aggression because being aggressive may allow them to survive long enough to reproduce. In explaining childhood aggression, Dr. Fine is using the _____ perspective.

Question 57

According to _____ theory, biologically based drives work to ensure that individuals survive and reproduce.

Question 58

Selective _____ is the process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment.

Question 59

Each developmental theory has received severe criticism. The _____ theory has been criticized for neglecting individual choice.

Question 60

Hannah theorized that sleep helps people act in safer ways. She tested her theory by conducting an experiment. She manipulated the amount of sleep participants got and then tested participants' driving ability. Hannah learned that participants who got more sleep were safer drivers. In this example, Hannah's theory led her to _____.

A) replicate research
B) solve a developmental problem
C) generate a discovery
D) change the behavior of many people

Question 61

Learning as defined in behaviorism is _____ the general definition of learning.

A) more narrow than
B) more comprehensive than
C) the same as
D) the opposite of

Question 62

The process by which a response becomes linked to a particular consequence is called _____.

A) psychoanalysis
B) cognition
C) observational learning
D) operant conditioning

Question 63

A balloon popped and made Bobby cry. It happened again when he was at a friend's birthday party. Now when Bobby sees a balloon, he starts to cry. Bobby cries in response to the balloon because of _____.

A) operant conditioning
B) observational learning
C) classical conditioning
D) modeling

Question 64

Thirteen- year-old Mishal has never taken any singing lessons before, but she has decided to join her school choir. While there she met a new friend, who introduced her to a new sport. Mishal is trying out new activities and new friends because she's in Erikson's _____ stage of development.

A) identity vs. role confusion
B) autonomy vs. shame
C) initiative vs. guilt
D) industry vs. inferiority

Question 65

Skinner believed that psychology should focus on the study of behavior. The type of conditioning that Skinner identified was _____.

A) classical conditioning
B) observational conditioning
C) operant conditioning
D) cognitive conditioning

Question 66

When a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, gradually responding to the neutral stimulus in the same way as to the meaningful one, the person or animal is exhibiting _____.

A) classical conditioning
B) observational learning
C) operant conditioning
D) modeling

Question 67

Within Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, each of the developmental stages is characterized by a particular challenge or _____.

A) conflict negotiation
B) developmental conflict
C) developmental crisis
D) crisis opposition

Question 68

It is time for 2-year-old Mira and her mother to leave for preschool. However, Mira insists that she must put on her shoes by herself. It seems that Mira is in Erikson's _____ stage of development.

A) trust vs. mistrust
B) autonomy vs. shame
C) initiative vs. guilt
D) industry vs. inferiority

Question 69

Unlike Freud, Erikson _____.

A) only described development in childhood
B) believed that adult problems reflect childhood conflicts
C) proposed a theory of the entire life span
D) was a psychoanalytic psychologist

Question 70

One of the reasons that school-age children (5-12 years of age) tend to enjoy working on worksheets, or making collections of objects, or practicing their hobby is because they are in Erikson's _____ stage of development.

A) trust vs. mistrust
B) autonomy vs. shame
C) initiative vs. guilt
D) industry vs. inferiority

Question 71

American behaviorists believe that psychologists should focus on _____.

A) observable behaviors
B) inner drives and motives
C) a person's ideas and beliefs
D) a person's sexual conflict

Question 72

Which psychoanalytic theorist identified unique stages of development from birth through late adulthood?

A) Freud
B) Piaget
C) Skinner
D) Erikson

Question 73

The teacher praised students for their good work on a spelling test. The teacher hopes that the praise will encourage students to study hard for the next spelling test. In this example, praise is operating as a _____.

A) reinforcement
B) punishment
C) conditioner
D) norm

Question 74

Pavlov's experiments with dogs that salivated when they heard a specific noise provide an example of _____.

A) classical conditioning
B) observational learning
C) operant conditioning
D) reinforcement

Question 75

Johnny is 12 years old and has been aggressive toward his siblings and peers by hitting, kicking, and calling them names. Johnny's parents are worried about these new aggressive behaviors and consult with a psychologist, who suggests that this behavior could be the result of unconscious drives originating from conflicts during early development. The psychologist's explanation for the aggression is consistent with _____.

A) psychoanalytic theory
B) cognitive theory
C) behaviorism
D) information-processing theory

Question 76

When Scott gets home from work, his infant son, Mino, smiles and kicks his legs. Pavlov would say that Scott's arrival has been paired with playtime, so now Mino is displaying a _____ to Scott's arrival.

A) unconditioned stimulus
B) unconditioned response
C) conditioned stimulus
D) conditioned response

Question 77

Alexei is a 6-month-old infant. When he cries in the middle of the night, one of his parents quickly comes to see what he needs. It is probably advisable that his parents continue to respond reliably, because Alexei is in Erikson's _____ stage of development.

A) trust vs. mistrust
B) autonomy vs. shame
C) initiative vs. guilt
D) industry vs. inferiority

Question 78

Operant conditioning is also referred to as _____.

A) classical conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
C) observational conditioning
D) reinforcement conditioning

Question 79

Koji is 4 years old and has just "baked a cake" by mixing together applesauce, smashed up Cheerios, and chocolate syrup. He very proudly presents the cake to his mother, declaring, "I made this cake for you!" Koji seems to be in Erikson's stage of initiative versus guilt, and he might develop lifelong guilt if his mother _____.

A) pretends to like the cake
B) punishes him for wasting food
C) tells him that the cake looks good, but she's not hungry
D) tells him thank you and then enlists his help in cleaning up the kitchen

Question 80

Though many of the theorists who followed Freud's psychoanalytic theory modified and expanded his ideas, they agreed on the importance of _____.

A) early childhood experiences and psychosexual conflicts
B) psychosexual conflicts and the unconscious
C) early childhood experiences and the unconscious
D) psychosexual conflicts and stages of psychosexual development