Deck 6: Perception, Cognition, and Emotion

Question 1

A frame is the subjective mechanism through which people evaluate and make sense out of situations, leading them to pursue or avoid subsequent actions.

Answer 1

True

Question 2

A gain/loss frame affects human behaviour and choice largely through its effect on people's risk preferences.

Answer 2

True

Question 3

A perceptual bias is the "sense making" mechanism through which people interpret their environment so they can respond appropriately.

Answer 3

False

Question 4

Halo effects can be positive or negative.

Question 5

The perceiver's own needs, desires, motivations, and personal experiences are unlikely to create a predisposition about the other party in an upcoming negotiation.

Question 6

Halo effects occur when people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.

Question 7

Multiple agenda items have no effect on issue development.

Question 8

A party's predisposition to achieving a specific result or outcome from the negotiation is called a perspective frame.

Question 9

The negotiator's own biases-for example, the predisposition to view a handshake as aggressive or confident-are likely to affect how the other party's behaviour is perceived and interpreted.

Question 10

Perception is a "sense-making" process; people interpret their environment so they can make appropriate responses to it.

Question 11

Stereotyping is the least common distortion of the perceptual process.

Question 12

A reference point is an arbitrary point used to evaluate an alternative as either a gain or a loss.

Question 13

Frames emerge and converge as the parties refuse to talk about their preferences and priorities.

Question 14

Frames shape what the parties define as the key issues and how they talk about them.

Question 15

Perception is the process by which individuals "connect" to their environment.

Question 16

The aspiration frame refers to a predisposition toward satisfying a broader set of interests or needs in negotiation.

Question 17

Projection occurs when people assign to others the characteristics or feelings that they do not possess, but wish that they could, themselves.

Question 18

One of the ways framing affects negotiation is by influencing how negotiators interpret available options.

Question 19

Stereotyping and halo effects are examples of perceptual distortion by generalization

Question 20

Stereotyping and halo effects are examples of perceptual distortion by the anticipation of encountering certain attributes and qualities in another person.

Question 21

Actor-observer effect can be thought of as "If I mess up, it's bad luck; if you mess up, it's your fault!"

Question 22

The definition of issues at stake in a negotiation may not change as the discussion evolves.

Question 23

Perception is:

A) the process by which individuals detach from their environment.
B) a factor that can affect how meanings are ascribed.
C) unrelated to the perceiver's current state of mind.
D) a simple mental process.

Question 24

Halo effects occur when:

A) people ascribe to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves.
B) attributes are assigned to an individual solely on the basis of his or her membership in a particular social or demographic group.
C) the perceiver singles out certain information that supports or reinforces a prior belief, and filters out information that does not confirm that belief.
D) people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.

Question 25

One of the most important aspects of framing as issue development is the process of unframing or the manner in which the thrust, tone, and focus of a conversation change as the parties engage in it.

Question 26

An insight drawn from research of the frames negotiators use in disputes would suggest that parties discussing salary may be likely to use outcome frames and may be related to which of the following?

A) Particular types of frames may lead to particular types of agreements.
B) Negotiators can use more than one frame.
C) Mismatches in frames between parties are sources of conflict.
D) Specific frames may be likely to be used with certain types of issues.

Question 27

The winner's curse refers to the tendency of negotiators, particularly in an auction setting, to settle quickly on an item and then subsequently feel discomfort about a negotiation win that comes too easily.

Question 28

Which of the following lists the stages of the perceptual process in the correct order?

A) Stimulus, attention, recognition, translation, behaviour
B) Stimulus, behaviour, translation, attention, recognition
C) Stimulus, translation, attention, recognition, behaviour
D) Behaviour, stimulus, recognition, attention, translation

Question 29

Those who believe in the mythical fixed pie assume there is no possibility for integrative settlements and mutually beneficial trade-offs, and they suppress efforts to search for them.

Question 30

Those attempting to negotiate in China recognize the value the Chinese place in saving "face." All of the following cultural elements should be examined in approaching discussions with the Chinese, except:

A) Social linkage
B) Harmony
C) Currency
D) Roles

Question 31

A country that continues to pour military resources into an unwinnable armed conflict is a classic example of the mythical belief that the issues under negotiation are all fixed-pie issues.

Question 32

Projection occurs when:

A) attributes are assigned to an individual solely on the basis of his or her membership in a particular social or demographic group.
B) people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.
C) people assign to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves.
D) the perceiver singles out certain information that supports or reinforces a prior belief and filters out information that does not confirm that belief.

Question 33

Naming occurs when parties in a dispute label or identify a problem and characterize what it is about.

Question 34

Cognitive biases facilitate negotiator collaboration.

Question 35

The irrational escalation of commitment bias refers to:

A) how easily information can be recalled and used to inform or evaluate a process of a decision.
B) the standard against which subsequent adjustments are measured during negotiation.
C) the perspective or point of view that people use when they gather information and solve problems.
D) a negotiator's commitment to a course of action, even when that commitment constitutes irrational behaviour on his/her part.

Question 36

Blaming occurs as the parties try to determine who or what caused the problem.

Question 37

Frames are shaped by conversations that the parties have with each other about the issues in the bargaining mix.

Question 38

In decision theory, the law of small numbers refers to the tendency of people to ignore information gleaned from small sample sizes.

Question 39

In which type of frame would parties be more likely to engage primarily in distributive (win-lose or lose-lose) negotiations than in other types?

A) Process
B) Outcome
C) Loss-gain
D) Identity

Question 40

Framing is about focusing, shaping, and organizing the world around us, but does not define persons, events, or processes.

Question 41

The endowment effect:

A) is making attributions to the person or the situation
B) is negotiators believing that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than actually true
C) is drawing conclusions from small sample sizes
D) is the tendency to overvalue something you own or believe you possess

Question 42

All of the following are cognitive biases, except:

A) the process of anchoring and adjustment in decision making
B) the irrational escalation of commitment
C) the belief that the issues under negotiation are all "fixed pie"
D) the negotiator's dilemma

Question 43

Research shows that simply telling people about misconceptions and cognitive biases does little to counteract their effects,

Question 44

The distinction between mood and emotion is based on which of the following characteristics, except:

A) intensity
B) specificity
C) duration
D) conformity

Question 45

The best way to manage perceptual and cognitive biases is:

A) to minimize them.
B) to hide them.
C) to understand how biases happen
D) to ignore them.

Question 46

A negative mood increases the likelihood that the actor will:

A) increase sympathic behaviour toward the other.
B) be less persistent in attempting to achieve their objectives.
C) behave compassionately in negotiations.
D) increase belligerent behaviour toward the other.

Question 47

Negative emotions may lead parties to:

A) escalate the conflict
B) promote persistence
C) define the situation as integrative
D) more integrative processes

Question 48

Much of the research that has been done on emotion emphasizes negative states.

Question 49

There are no benefits to anger.

Question 50

Which of the following cognitive biases refers to the tendency of negotiators to settle quickly in negotiation and then subsequently feel discomfort about a win that comes too easily?

A) Anchoring and adjustment
B) Escalation of commitment
C) The winner's curse
D) Mythical fixed pie

Question 51

Positive and negative emotions tend to be classified under the single term "happiness."

Question 52

In explaining another person's behaviour, the tendency is to overestimate the causal role of factors and underestimate the causal role of factors.

A) external; internal
B) external; personal
C) situational; personal
D) personal; situational

Question 53

When different negotiators apply different, or mismatched, frames, they will find the bargaining process:

A) simple and positive
B) emotional and distracting
C) ambiguous and frustrating
D) clear and concise

Question 54

Moods and emotions are essentially the same thing.

Question 55

An investor who continues to put more money into a declining stock in hopes its fortunes will turn exemplifies which of the following cognitive biases?

A) The winner's curse
B) Anchoring and adjustment
C) Escalation of commitment
D) Mythical fixed pie

Question 56

Research by Brooks and Schweitzer revealed that negotiators who felt anxious performed worse than negotiators whose feelings were more neutral.

Question 57

The availability of information bias operates with which of the following statements?

A) When negotiators sometimes maintain commitment to a course of action even when that commitment constitutes irrational behaviour on their part.
B) When the tendency of negotiators to believe that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than is actually true.
C) When information that is presented in vivid, colourful, or attention-getting ways becomes easy to recall, and thus also becomes central and critical in evaluating events and options.
D) When thorough preparation, along with the use of a devil's advocate or reality check, can help prevent errors.

Question 58

Resentment is the most widely discussed emotion by negotiation researchers.

Question 59

It is not likely that negotiators will apply multiple frames to the same negotiation.

Question 60

Which of the following cognitive biases can lead negotiators to discount the worth or validity of the judgment of others?

A) Mythical fixed-pie beliefs
B) Irrational escalation of commitment
C) Overconfidence
D) Anchoring and adjustment

Question 61

What is meant by the false consensus effect?

Question 62

In negotiation, when does the availability bias operate?

Question 63

How does projection occur?

Question 64

Define perceptual distortion by generalization.

Question 65

How do multiple agenda items operate to shape issue development?

Question 66

What role do frames play in the way they are constructed so that bargainers define problems and courses of action jointly through their talk?

Question 67

emotions may lead parties to escalate the conflict.

A) Positive
B) Uncontrollable
C) Validated
D) Negative

Question 68

What can help prevent errors of anchoring and adjustment?

Question 69

Define cognitive biases.

Question 70

What is stereotyping?

Question 71

Explain "Irrational Escalation of Commitment."

Question 72

Why do mismatches occur in frames between parties' sources of conflicts?

Question 73

What is the best remedy for the winner's curse?

Question 74

Define risk-averse and risk-seeking framing.

Question 75

Describe the double-edged effect of overconfidence.

Question 76

How does an outcome frame function in an environmental dispute?

Question 77

Positive feelings are more likely to lead the parties toward more:

A) conscientious processes
B) egotistical processes
C) integrative processes
D) distributive processes

Question 78

List the five concepts from Chinese culture, as identified by C. Tinsley that those attempting to negotiate in China should recognize.

Question 79

A key issue in perception and negotiation is framing. What is meant by framing?

Question 80

How are frames critical in negotiations?