Deck 1: Introduction

Question 1

The term behavior refers to any activity of an organism that can be o _______ or somehow m _______, whereas the term learning refers to a relatively p _______ change in what an organism does as a result of some type of ex _______.

Answer 1

Any activity performed by an organism which can be observed or measured somehow is called as behavior. This activity can either be internal or external and thus may or may not be visible to any other people.
Learning , on the other hand, refers to a specifically permanent change in the overall behavior of an individual that gets resulted into some kind of experience. Any change in behavior is not necessary to be immediate in nature. In certain circumstances, this change in behavior might not even become evident until a long time passes after the experience. A very good example to accentuate the difference between behavior and learning is by taking the example of reading a book. This is a typical behavior. However, any lasting change in the behavior of the person reading the book will be classic example of learning. Thus, there are two basic processes of learning such as classical learning (also called as Pavlovian or respondent ) and operant conditioning.
So, the blank (a) can be filled with , blank (b) can be filled with , blank (c) can be filled with and blank (d) can be filled with .

Question 2

The nativist position, as exemplified by the Greek philosopher _______, emphasizes the role of (learning/heredity) _______.

Answer 2

Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, lived back in between 384 to 322 B.C. His teacher Plato believed that everything an individual knows is innate or inborn. Thus, all of the knowledge of that individual resides in his/her soul.
For him, learning was a phenomenon of inner reflection that would help uncover the knowledge which exists within a human. However, Aristotle did not agree with Plato's ideology, and he went on to argue that knowledge of an individual is not innate. Rather, he stated that knowledge is something that is acquired over a time through experiences.
This disagreement between Aristotle's and Plato's ideologies serves as a classic example of a debate between the ideas of nativism and empiricism. These concepts are basically the nature and nurture perspectives respectively. The concept of Nativist (nature) takes into assumption that an individual's abilities as well as tendencies are mostly innate. Hence, Plato's ideology is an example of nativist.
On the other hand, the empiricist or the nurture perspective takes into assumption that an individual's abilities as well as tendencies are mostly acquired or learned through experience. Therefore, Aristotle's ideology is an example of empiricist.
So, the first blank can be filled with and the second blank can be filled with .

Question 3

Descartes' dualistic model proposed that human behavior has two aspects: an inv_______ aspect that functions like a machine and a v_______ aspect governed by f_______ w _______. By contrast, the behavior of animals was believed to be entirely _______.

Answer 3

Descartes was known to oppose this notion. He went on to propose a dualistic model for the nature of humans. He claimed that the human body functions just like a machine does and produces reflexive or involuntary behaviors as a response to external stimuli like sneezing, which is caused due to dust. His model also proposed that there is another aspect of the humans, their mind, having free will and producing behaviors, which are regarded as voluntary like choosing the food for dinner.
This model proposed by Descartes was called mind-body dualism. Basically, it proposes that there are behaviors of humans, which are like reflexes, getting switched on by any sort of external stimuli, whereas there are certain other behaviors also, which are rather freely chosen and under the control of the human mind. Descartes had another belief that only the humans possess this self-directing type of mind and the nonhuman behavior is reflexive in nature.
Hence, the first blank can be filled with . The second blank can be filled with . The third blank can be filled with . The fourth blank can be filled with and the fifth blank can be filled with .

Question 4

The (functionalist/structuralist) _______ approach proposed that the goal of psychology should be to identify the basic elements of the mind. The primary research method used for accomplishing this was the method of i _______.

Question 5

An ev _______ ad _______ is a trait that has evolved through n _______ s _______ _______.

Question 6

Watson noted that a major problem with the method _______ of was that the results obtained were often unreliable.

Question 7

Watson's brand of behaviorism is often referred to as _______ behaviorism.

Question 8

Hull believed that it might be useful to incorporate internal events into one's theorizing so long as they can be op _______ by defining them in such a way that they can be measured.

Question 9

Tolman's approach is known as _______ behaviorism because it utilizes mentalistic concepts, such as "expectations," to explain behavior. This approach is also sometimes called p _______ behaviorism.

Question 10

Bandura's _______ _______ theory emphasizes the importance of o _______ learning and c _______ variables.

Question 11

Skinner's _______ behaviorism emphasizes both internal and external behaviors as resulting from e _______ influences.

Question 12

Skinner is most similar to (Hull/Watson/Tolman) _______ in arguing that behavior is best viewed from a m _______ perspective.

Question 13

Skinner's philosophy of behaviorism (meaning the set of basic assumptions for how best to conduct a science of behavior) is called _______ behaviorism.

Question 14

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Name and briefly describe the two fundamental forms of learning emphasized in this textbook.

Question 15

In _______ conditioning, behaviors that the average person typically regards as (voluntary/involuntary) come to be elicited in new situations.

Question 16

The empiricist position, as exemplified by the Greek philosopher _______, emphasizes the role of (learning/heredity) _______.

Question 17

The British _______, such as John _______, maintained that knowledge was largely a function of ex and that the mind of a newborn infant is a (in Latin) t r (which means).

Question 18

In contrast to the above, those who adopted the (functionalist/structuralist) _______ approach to psychology emphasized the adaptive processes of the mind and were thus very interested in the study of learning.

Question 19

The three main components to the theory of natural selection are:
a.
b.
c.

Question 20

A basic problem with relying on someone's report about his or her thoughts and feelings is that we are making a(n) _______ that the report is accurate. This term is defined in the footnote as a supposition or guess based on logical d rather than direct o _______.

Question 21

According to this type of behaviorism, psychologists should study only those behaviors that can be _______ _______

Question 22

In Hull's approach, the internal events he included were hypothetical ph _______ processes.

Question 23

A _______ _______ is an internal representation of one's surroundings.

Question 24

The concept of _______ _______ proposes that three variables: e _______, b _______, and p _______ variables, all interact with each other.

Question 25

Skinner views thoughts and feelings as pr _______ behaviors that themselves need to be explained. These can also be called _______ behaviors.

Question 26

For Skinner, an S-R interpretation can best be applied to behavior that is r _______ and can be _______ conditioned. It cannot be applied to behavior that is under the control of its c _______ and has a more fl_______quality about it.

Question 27

The science that grew out of that philosophy is called the e _______ a of behavior or, more briefly, _______ _______.

Question 28

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Describe the nativist versus empiricist approaches to knowledge. How would a nativist versus an empiricist explain how Picasso became such a great artist?

Question 29

In _______ conditioning, a behavior produces some type of consequence that strengthens or weakens its occurrence. Such behaviors are typically those that are generally regarded as "g _______ -directed" and which the average person often perceives as being "v _______ " in nature.

Question 30

Nativist is to (nature/nurture) as empiricist is to (nature/nurture) _______.

Question 31

They also believed that the mind is composed of a finite set of basic _______ that are then combined through the principles of _______ to form our conscious experiences.

Question 32

The functionalist approach was strongly influenced by Darwin's theory of _______. As such, these psychologists viewed animal research as (relevant/ irrelevant) _______ to the study of human behavior in that humans were assumed to have evolved in a (similar/dissimilar) _______ way to other animals.

Question 33

To say that a trait is h _______ means that it has a genetic basis and can be inherited by offspring.

Question 34

The notion that the proper subject matter of psychology should be the study of consciousness was so strong that even those who studied _______ behavior felt compelled to make inferences about possible mental processes in their subjects.

Question 35

Watson believed that all reference to events _______ should be eliminated from the study of behavior.

Question 36

Such internal events are called i _______ variables in that they are presumed to m _______ between the environment and behavior.

Question 37

The experiment by Tolman and Honzik (1930) has traditionally been regarded as a demonstration of _______ learning, in which learning appears to take place in the absence of any reward. The experiment has also been regarded as a demonstration of the distinction between learning and _______.

Question 38

Bandura's work has influenced the development of a type of therapy known as _______-_______ therapy, in which an attempt is made to change behavior by altering both environmental and c _______ factors.

Question 39

In teaching children to label their thoughts and feelings, parents first have to make an inf _______ about what the child is feeling.

Question 40

The Tolmanian rat runs through the maze because it e _______ that doing so will result in food; the Skinnerian rat runs through the maze because, in its p _______ exp _______, doing so resulted in food.

Question 41

The technology that has grown out of that science is known as _______ _______ _______.

Question 42

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Name and briefly describe the four laws of association.

Question 43

Feeling anxious as you enter a dentist's office is an example of a behavior that has most likely been learned through _______ conditioning.

Question 44

The law of _______ states that we associate events that are opposite to each other, whereas the law of _______ states that we associate events that occur in close proximity to each other.

Question 45

The functionalists were similar to the structuralists in that they still emphasized the study of c _______ experience and in doing so often used the method of i _______.

Question 46

The real driving force behind evolution is not survival of the fittest, but rather the r _______ advantage held by those individuals who possess adaptive traits.

Question 47

Watson argued that psychology needed to become a n _______ science (like biology, chemistry, and physics) based solely on the study of directly ob _______ events.

Question 48

Watson proposed a(n) _______-_______ theory of learning which hypothesizes that learning involves the formation of a direct connection between a st _______ and a r _______.

Question 49

Hull's theory was a pure _______-_______ theory in that it assumed that the process of learning involves the creation of connections between specific s _______ and specific r _______.

Question 50

Tolman believed that introspectively observed thoughts and feelings are (useless/ useful) _______ in the analysis of behavior. As well, almost all of Tolman's research was conducted using as _______ subjects.

Question 51

In determining the relationship of thoughts and feelings to behavior, it is sometimes difficult to know if the internal event pr _______, f _______, or occurs pa _______ to the behavior.

Question 52

Although he emphasized the role of the environment, Skinner also believed that behavior was fundamentally the result of the interaction of g _______ and the environment. He was in fact quite interested in evidence indicating g _______ limitations on _______ conditioning.

Question 53

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Outline Descartes' dualistic model of human behavior. In his view, what is a basic distinction between the behavior of humans and the behavior of other animals?

Question 54

Speaking with a loud voice in a noisy environment so that others will be able to hear you is an example of a behavior that has most likely been learned through _______ conditioning.

Question 55

According to the law of _______, we easily associate events that resemble each other. According to the law of _______, the more often two events occur together, the stronger the association.

Question 56

William James was a (functionalist/structuralist) _______, and Edward Titchener was a _______.

Question 57

It is simplistic to assume that one can draw a clear distinction between n _______ and n _______ because the way we learn is itself an i _______ trait.

Question 58

According to the law of p _______, the (simple/complex) _______ explanation is generally the preferable explanation.

Question 59

In his 1913 article on behaviorism, Watson emphasized the role of both h _______ and e _______ in the development of human behavior. In his later theorizing, however, he downplayed the role of _______.

Question 60

The modern-day study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals is known as a _______ c _______ or com _______ c _______.

Question 61

Yet another issue with respect to using internal events to explain behavior is that we (can/cannot) _______ directly change such events.

Question 62

Skinner believed that the processes of ev _______ and op _______ conditioning were quite similar in that both involved the selection of what was beneficial from what was not beneficial.

Question 63

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
How did the British empiricists view the acquisition of knowledge and the composition of the conscious mind?

Question 64

According to the notational system to be used in this text, the term "A: B" means that event A (produces/is followed by) _______ event B, and the term "X ã Y" means that event X (produces/is followed by) _______ event Y.

Question 65

Animals that have fur, four legs, a tail, and can bark are quickly perceived as belonging to the same species. This is an example of the law of _______.

Question 66

One version of the above law, known as M _______ C _______, holds that it is preferable to interpret animal behavior in terms of lower, more primitive processes, such as reflex or habit, than higher, more mentalistic processes, such as reasoning.

Question 67

In his later theorizing, Watson proposed that humans inherit (many/a few) basic reflexes, along with three basic emotions: _______, _______, and _______.

Question 68

Saying that you are feeling "happy" to explain why you are always smiling and laughing is, from Skinner's perspective, an example of using feelings as a ps _______ explanation for your behavior.

Question 69

On a practical level, Skinner was (enthused/cautious) about _______ genetic explanations for behavior because he believed that such explanations tend to be (optimistic/pessimistic) _______ about the possibility of change.

Question 70

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Describe the structuralist approach to psychology. Name and define the basic method by which the structuralists gathered data.

Question 71

The fact that the words full and empty are easily associated with each other is an example of the law of _______.

Question 72

Altering the environment so as to control our own behavior is referred to as c _______ control. However, in Skinner's view, even this type of behavior is ultimately the result of some type of e _______ influence.

Question 73

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Describe the functionalist approach to psychology. Where did functionalists stand on the issue of animal experimentation, and what was their reasoning behind this?

Question 74

The more often one practices a particular move in wrestling, the more likely one is to perform that move in a real match. This is an example of the law of _______.

Question 75

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Describe Darwin's principle of natural selection. What are the three main components of the principle of natural selection?

Question 76

After once encountering a snake in her garage, Lisa is now quite nervous each time she is in the garage. This is an example of Aristotle's law of _______. This is also an example of (classical/operant) _______ conditioning.

Question 77

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Define the law of parsimony and Morgan's Canon.

Question 78

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Describe Watson's methodological behaviorism. How did Watson's position on the nature-nurture debate change over time?

Question 79

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Describe Hull's neobehaviorism. How does Tolman's cognitive behaviorism differ from it?

Question 80

Because many students tend to ignore long lists of broad study questions (or learning objectives) that attempt to cover all the material in a chapter, the end-of-chapter study questions in this text focus on the most basic information. To determine if you have a grasp of this information, see if you can write out a clear answer to each of these questions. Be aware, however, that obtaining an excellent mark in this course will require more than just a simple reiteration of this basic material.
Describe Bandura's social learning theory. Outline or diagram his concept of reciprocal determinism.