Deck 1: Introduction to Criminological Theory

Question 1

Theories of crime offer tentative answers not only to questions of what is but also to questions of what ought to be.

Answer 1

False

Question 2

Criminological theories have successfully identified factors that are both necessary and sufficient causes of crime.

Answer 2

False

Question 3

A useful theory of crime provides implications or guidelines for criminal justice policy, but one cannot directly test the theory from the success or failure of the policy.

Answer 3

True

Question 4

A variable correlated with crime is necessarily a cause of crime.

Question 5

Theory and fact are inversely related: As criminologists uncover more facts about crime, there is less need for theory.

Question 6

A macro theory is one that explains behavior in terms of genetic, chemical, neurological, or physiological factors.

Question 7

Soft determinism is the concept that behavior is partly a matter of choice and partly a function of influences over which people have no control.

Question 8

The probabilistic concept of causation suggests that human behavior is determined by external forces with little exercise of free will.

Question 9

Evaluation of the success or failure of a criminal justice program or policy based on a particular theory of crime is a good way to provide a direct test of that theory.

Question 10

Sound policy and practice must be shown empirically to be effective in achieving stated goals such as reduction of recidivism.

Question 11

Probability concepts of cause and soft determinism fit explanations of criminal behavior better than do concepts of strict determinism and direct cause and effect.

Question 12

The adequacy of a theory can best be judged by the political or partisan ideologies of its proponents.

Question 13

In democratic society, a good criminal justice or crime prevention policy should not only be effective but also meet legal, ethical, and moral standards of fairness and due process.

Question 14

Traditional Causality requires that cause X must precede and produce effect Y.

Question 15

Causality is more applicable in social sciences than hard sciences.

Question 16

A theory is tautological if it:

A) is not very useful
B) is not empirically validated
C) is true by definition
D) is internally inconsistent
E) is limited in scope

Question 17

Theories in criminology do all of the following except:

A) help us understand how characteristics of individuals (e.g., personality factors, biological factors) are related to criminal behavior
B) offer insight into social structures and social processes that may account for differences in crime rates across groups
C) offer religious and philosophical perspectives on how we ought to view crime and criminals
D) provide bases for predictions about future trends and patterns of crime
E) provide guidance to policymakers who may wish to implement programs of crime prevention and control

Question 18

According to Edwin Sutherland, criminology involves the study of:

A) how and why particular conduct comes to be defined as illegal
B) how laws are enforced by the criminal justice system
C) why people violate the law
D) scientific techniques of investigating crime
E) a, b, and c

Question 19

"Macro" theories of criminal behavior focus on:

A) how multiple factors in combination contribute to criminal behavior
B) the role of physiological factors in crime
C) individual differences between offenders and nonoffenders
D) the impact on offenders of being labeled "criminal"
E) how characteristics of groups or societies affect crime rates

Question 20

According to Akers and Sellers, the most important criterion for evaluating a theory is:

A) clarity
B) scope
C) testability
D) empirical validity
E) internal consistency

Question 21

If a theory of crime causation is parsimonious, then:

A) it focuses on explaining a limited subset of criminal behavior (e.g., white-collar crime)
B) researchers will be able to agree on how to gather empirical evidence to test it
C) it offers clear and practical guidance for social policy
D) it relies on a few simple propositions rather than a complex set of statements
E) it has strong empirical support

Question 22

The hallmark of a scientific theory is that:

A) it can be empirically verified
B) it can be empirically falsified
C) its concepts and propositions are stated as a tautology
D) its propositions have been derived deductively
E) its propositions have been derived inductively

Question 23

A theory that focuses on the subjective perceptions and motivations of individuals is an example of what level of analysis?

A) micro
B) meso
C) structural
D) epidemiological
E) sociological

Question 24

In evaluating the empirical validity of criminological theories, Akers and Sellers take the position that we should:

A) reject a theory until research has found it to be entirely correct
B) accept a theory until it encounters negative evidence
C) consider asking what degree of research support the theory has received
D) compare the amount of support that competing theories have received
E) both c and d

Question 25

The "level of analysis" of a criminological theory refers to:

A) the depth of understanding we get from it regarding the feelings and motivations of criminal offenders
B) how complex the theory is as a set of concepts and propositions
C) the degree of empirical support that the theory has received
D) whether the theory focuses on individuals, groups, or societies in explaining criminal behavior
E) none of the above

Question 26

If a theory of crime is empirically valid, then:

A) there will be no "negative cases," i.e., cases that do not fit the pattern predicted by the theory
B) changes in criminal behavior will be correlated with changes in the explanatory variables identified by the theory
C) it will provide a more useful guide to social policy than a theory that is not empirically valid
D) a and c
E) b and c

Question 27

In the traditional concept of causality, which of the following criteria must be met to establish that X is a cause of Y?

A) X must be a necessary condition, in the absence of which Y will not occur
B) X must be a sufficient condition, so that Y always occurs in the presence of X
C) changes in X must be correlated with changes in Y
D) changes in X must precede changes in Y
E) a and b

Question 28

Sound policy and practice must:

A) be shown empirically to produce the intended outcome
B) meet ethical, legal, and moral standards
C) be only philosophically plausible
D) a and b
E) all of the above

Question 29

According to Akers and Sellers, good, sound criminal justice and social policies designed to prevent or control crime that are derived from theories of criminal and delinquent behavior:

A) need only to make sense or be plausible from a theoretical point of view
B) must be shown through empirical evaluation that they are effective
C) must relate primarily to controllable variables in criminal justice system such as police practices
D) b and c only
E) all of the above

Question 30

A tautological explanation is one that is:

A) true by definition
B) untestable
C) circular in reasoning
D) all of the above
E) b and c only

Question 31

The better empirical tests of theories do all of the following except:

A) they do a good job of measuring the variables derived from the theory
B) they correctly specify the hypotheses about the relationships expected or predicted by the theory
C) they concentrate on one main concept of the theory to be measured
D) they use measures that correctly and reliably reflect the meaning of the concepts in the theory
E) none of the above

Question 32

What are the general characteristics of criminological theories? In your essay on this question address at least the following: What are the major questions about crime that criminological theories attempt to answer? How do these questions relate to the way in which criminological theories are classified? How do the questions differ from the kind of questions to which social and political philosophies of crime control are addressed?

Question 33

Identify and explain the major criteria for evaluating the adequacy of criminological theories.

Question 34

Dr. Jane Smith has developed a psychological theory that explains crime in terms of a mental disorder she calls "antisocial tendency." She prepares a questionnaire to test this theory, which includes an "antisocial tendency scale" (ATS). Items on the ATS include questions like "How many times in the past year have you shoplifted items from a store?" and "How many times in the past year have you used illegal drugs?" The ATS is administered to a large sample of people in the general population as well as a large sample of inmates in the state prison. Dr. Smith finds in this study that inmates score significantly higher on the ATS than people in the general population. She concludes that an important discovery has been made, namely, that a mental disorder, "antisocial tendency," is in fact an important cause of criminal behavior. The theory has been empirically validated.
Evaluate the theory and the research on which Dr. Smith bases her conclusion on the criteria of testability and tautology.

Question 35

How do we judge whether one explanation for crime is preferable to another? Identify and discuss criteria for evaluating criminological theories. Which do you consider to be most important, and why?

Question 36

Discuss the central questions toward which criminological theories are directed.

Question 37

"Every policy to prevent or reduce crime implies a criminological theory." Discuss. Consider the implications of your answer for theory testing.

Question 38

Discuss the major problems that inhibit theory testing.

Question 39

In the text, Akers and Sellers discuss different ways of classifying criminological theories. Identify two of these classification schemes, and discuss their usefulness in organizing criminological data.

Question 40

Suppose that a theory proposes that growing up in deteriorated, inner-city neighborhoods produces hopelessness and despair, which lead to crime. Suppose further that, in a test of the theory, researchers find that, compared with residents of middle-class suburban neighborhoods, a higher proportion of residents of deteriorated, inner-city neighborhoods commit crime. However, the researchers also find that many people who grow up in deteriorated, inner-city neighborhoods remain law-abiding and some even establish highly successful legitimate careers. Would we be correct in concluding that the theory has no empirical validity, or should we conclude that the theory has strong validity? Why or why not? What conclusion about empirical validity is most reasonable given these findings?

Question 41

To what extent does one's political, social, religious, or other philosophical leaning influence preferences for different theoretical perspectives or vice versa? Give examples, and refer to any empirical evidence that may be available.

Question 42

Critically examine the assertion that theories of crime and delinquency should be classified and evaluated mainly according to their philosophical or political assumptions as liberal, conservative, or radical. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this assertion and why? Is there evidence that criminologists are influenced in supporting or opposing a theory based on their own political or philosophical leanings?

Question 43

With no prior knowledge of criminological theory, how would you have explained the occurrence of crime?

Question 44

How do social sciences, especially criminology, differ from hard sciences? What makes testing hypotheses and predicting outcomes different for social sciences?

Question 45

Do you think it is more important to study crime at a micro or macro level? How could the findings differ by unit of analysis?

Question 46

How strong can a criminological theory be if it is not testable? Discuss how and why empirical falsification is important to theory.