Deck 6: Moral Theory

Question 1

Why does Cahn say that God's existence "does not imply any particular moral precepts"?

Answer 1

No Answer

Question 2

One possibility raised in the Euthyphro is that actions may be good because God says they are good. What problems does Cahn point out with this view?

Answer 2

No Answer

Question 3

Holy writings can conflict with one another.

Answer 3

True

Question 4

Cahn argues that actions are right because of God's commands.

Question 5

Cahn begins this essay by

A) asserting the existence of God.
B) assuming the existence of God.
C) doubting the existence of God.
D) denying the existence of God.

Question 6

One might think that God had implanted moral standards in human minds. Why does Cahn think this idea is doubtful?

A) Cahn does not believe in God.
B) No one has any moral standards in mind.
C) People's moral intuitions conflict.
D) Implanted standards would prevent any evil behavior.

Question 7

Throughout history, diviners, seers, and oracles have claimed to know the will of God. Holy books have also been written to reveal the will of God. What problem does Cahn point out with both oracles and holy books?

A) They have too much influence over believers.
B) They conflict with people's moral intuitions.
C) They conflict with each other.
D) No test is available to check them.

Question 8

Cahn concludes that

A) a believer is more likely to be moral than an atheist.
B) an atheist is more likely to be moral than a believer.
C) neither an atheist nor a believer is very likely to be a moral person.
D) an atheist can be moral or immoral and so can a believer.

Question 9

Midgley denies that respecting other cultures requires us to refrain from making negative judgments about them. Is this true? Why or why not?

Question 10

Midgley argues that moral isolationism amounts to "a general ban on moral reasoning." Is she correct about this? Why or why not?

Question 11

Midgley says that "if we accept something as a serious moral truth about one culture, we can't refuse to apply it-in however different an outward form-to other cultures as well, wherever circumstances admit." Is she saying that there is exactly one universal morality that applies to all cultures? Why or why not?

Question 12

Midgley argues that moral isolationism is not actually respectful of other cultures.

Question 13

Midgley thinks that moral isolationism is correct.

Question 14

Moral isolationism makes it impossible to praise other cultures.

Question 15

According to Midgley, any opinions we form about other cultures are necessarily crude.

Question 16

According to Midgley, it is wrong to impose our beliefs on other cultures only because our culture says it is wrong for us to do so.

Question 17

According to Midgley, if we accept a moral standard for one culture, we must also apply it to other cultures, including our own.

Question 18

Midgley argues that moral isolationism is true for very alien cultures, but not for cultures that overlap with one's own culture, as British culture overlaps with American culture.

Question 19

Midgley thinks it is easy to make a moral judgment about the wrongness of the Japanese practice of trying out one's new sword on a chance wayfarer.

Question 20

Midgley's primary goal in this chapter is to

A) argue that moral isolationism is false.
B) argue that moral isolationism is true.
C) argue that moral isolationism is incoherent (i.e., that it does not make sense).
D) argue that moral isolationism is true for our culture, but not for others.

Question 21

The doctrine of moral isolationism is that

A) it is impossible for members of one culture to make meaningful moral judgments about another culture.
B) it is morally wrong for members of one culture to impose their way of life on others.
C) because each culture is uniquely precious, cultures ought to remain isolated to avoid becoming too similar.
D) what is right or wrong for a person is determined by what his or her culture says is right or wrong.

Question 22

According to Midgley, the Japanese practice of "trying out one's new sword on a chance wayfarer" was important to classical Japanese culture because

A) it instilled in the lower classes a deep fear and respect of the samurai.
B) it was essential to the honor of each samurai that his sword was sharp enough to slice someone in half at a single stroke.
C) it led to the development of scientific experimentation in Japan.
D) it clearly distinguishes classical Japanese culture from other cultures with which we may be more familiar.

Question 23

Midgley gives the example of the indigenous Brazilian criticizing white Brazilians' culture in order to

A) illustrate the absurdity of making judgments about other cultures.
B) emphasize that moral isolationism applies only to particular cultures.
C) expose the hypocrisy of people who believe in moral isolationism.
D) suggest that it does seem possible for outsiders to criticize a culture.

Question 24

According to Midgley, moral isolationism limits our ability to judge our own culture because

A) it deprives us of the ability to make meaningful comparisons between our culture and other cultures.
B) we ultimately cannot understand even our own culture well enough to form judgments about it.
C) moral isolationism entails that only outsiders are sufficiently isolated from social pressure to form clear judgments.
D) it means that we need extensive training in anthropology to judge any culture, including our own.

Question 25

According to Midgley, a contemporary Westerner who wanted to justify the Japanese practice of "trying out one's new sword on a chance wayfarer" would have to

A) appeal to classical Japanese moral standards, which we could not understand.
B) explain the Japanese practice in terms of ideals that we can understand, such as discipline and devotion.
C) prove that Japanese practice would be equally appropriate in our own culture.
D) provide empirical evidence that Japanese wayfarers accepted the practice and so, in some sense, consented to being killed.

Question 26

According to Midgley, moral isolationism is not actually respectful of other cultures because

A) respecting someone or something requires us to be honest about what we think of the person or thing.
B) respecting someone or something requires us to understand it, and moral isolationism claims that we cannot understand other cultures.
C) moral isolationism entails that a person's own culture is better for that person than any other culture would be, which is disrespectful.
D) moral isolationism entails that other cultures are not worthy of sufficient attention to make well-informed judgments about them.

Question 27

According to Midgley, refusing to make moral judgments about other cultures leads to

A) moral skepticism, in which one refuses to make moral judgments about one's own culture.
B) moral imperialism, in which one attempts to impose one's own moral judgments on other cultures.
C) moral nihilism, in which one concludes that nothing is actually right or wrong after all.
D) moral assimilation, in which one can no longer distinguish the judgments of other cultures from those of one's own culture.

Question 28

Explain the two arguments that, according to Rachels, are usually given for psychological egoism. How does Rachels respond to each of those arguments? Are his responses convincing? Why or why not?

Question 29

Explain the argument that ethical egoism is false "because it cannot be universalized." Then explain Rachels' objection to that argument. Is his objection convincing? Why or why not?

Question 30

Why does Rachels think that, even though we cannot refute ethical egoism, most of us have a good reason not to be ethical egoists? Do you find this line of reasoning convincing? Why or why not?

Question 31

Ethical egoism is about how people ought to act and psychological egoism is about how people actually do act.

Question 32

According to Rachels, psychological egoism would be true if people always did only what they most wanted to do.

Question 33

According to Rachels, humans always act for the sake of pleasure.

Question 34

According to Rachels, all actions are either selfish or self-interested.

Question 35

The ethical egoist would want to live in a society in which people's rights and interests are respected.

Question 36

Rachels believes that there is no way to show that ethical egoists are committing some logical mistake.

Question 37

On Rachels' definition of ethical egoism, it would be wrong for an egoist to act solely for someone else's benefit.

Question 38

Rachels claims that the fact that some action would harm others is a fundamental reason not to perform that action.

Question 39

The myth of the ring of Gyges is meant to show that

A) although people have the power to act selflessly, they ought not to do so.
B) only the most virtuous people can be trusted with the sort of power the ring bestows.
C) people's true selves are revealed when they can act without repercussions.
D) even when people appear to be good, they are really only acting out of self-interest.

Question 40

The difference between psychological egoism and ethical egoism is that

A) the former says that each person ought to act selfishly, while the latter says that people ought to act in their own self-interest.
B) the former is about what actually motivates people and the latter is about how people ought to behave.
C) the former says that people should satisfy their subconscious desires, while the latter says that each people should satisfy only their ethical desires.
D) the former is about people's desires for themselves and the latter is about people's desires for others.

Question 41

Which of the following does Rachels not offer as a reason to reject the argument that people are selfish because they always do what they want to do?

A) People sometimes do things they don't want to do as a means to some further end.
B) Even if people only do what they most want to do, their actions don't count as selfish because they're determined by each person's biology.
C) People sometimes do things they don't want to do because they feel obligated to do them.
D) Even if people only do what they most want to do, their actions don't count as selfish if what they want is to help others.

Question 42

According to Rachels, the fact that we derive satisfaction from helping others does not prove that we are selfish because

A) the fact that helping others causes us satisfaction is proof that we have unselfish desires.
B) the ultimate goal of helping others is not satisfaction but the avoidance of guilt.
C) satisfaction is not the sort of thing that one can want for its own sake.
D) we sometimes act to help others without deriving any satisfaction from doing so.

Question 43

Which of the following best captures the difference between acting selfishly and acting in one's own self-interest, as Rachels characterizes it?

A) acting in one's short-term interest versus one's long-term interest
B) benefiting only oneself versus benefitting both oneself and others
C) ignoring others' interests versus promoting one's own interests
D) acting unethically versus acting ethically

Question 44

Which of the following is not a mistake that Rachels suggests causes people to believe in psychological egoism?

A) the belief that selfishness and self-interest are the same thing
B) the belief that every act is done either from self-interest or from altruism
C) the belief that concern for one's own well-being is incompatible with concern for others' well-being
D) the belief that everyone's lives would go best if only each person focused solely on his or her own self-interest

Question 45

According to Rachels, a sophisticated ethical egoist would

A) urge everyone else to adopt ethical egoism as well.
B) urge everyone else not to adopt ethical egoism.
C) refrain from harming others in order to maintain a stable society.
D) carefully distinguish between selfishness and self-interest.

Question 46

Why, according to the popular argument discussed by Rachels, should we reject ethical egoism?

A) because it would be best for Rachels if the rest of us reject ethical egoism
B) because it is implausible that each of us is ultimately motivated solely by self-interest
C) because it is impossible to consistently desire that each person acts in his or her own self-interest
D) because ethical egoism involves the logical error of believing that what is good for someone else must be bad for me

Question 47

Why does Rachels reject the claim that ethical egoism is internally inconsistent?

A) because it is, after all, possible to desire that everyone act in his or her own self-interest
B) because ethical egoism amounts to a desire for a world in which everything goes best for the egoist himself or herself, which is a perfectly internally consistent desire
C) because it is no more inconsistent to wish that everyone satisfies his or her own desires as it is to wish that each person helps all other people satisfy their desires
D) because the claim that ethical egoism is internally consistent confuses self-interest with selfishness

Question 48

According to Rachels, most people should not be ethical egoists because

A) most people do actually value others' well-being.
B) ethical egoism is internally inconsistent.
C) it would be bad for society if everyone were an egoist.
D) it is impossible to act solely in one's own interest all the time.

Question 49

What does it mean to treat someone as a mere means? What does it mean to treat someone as an end in himself or herself?

Question 50

Explain how Kant thinks he can derive one of the four duties he discusses from one of the formulations of the categorical imperative.

Question 51

An imperative is a command of reason.

Question 52

A categorical imperative represents something as good in itself.

Question 53

A hypothetical imperative represents something as good as a means to something else.

Question 54

Kant claims that we have a duty not to commit suicide.

Question 55

Kant claims that things deserve respect.

Question 56

Kant claims that you cannot conceive of a world in which everyone makes false promises for profit.

Question 57

Kant claims you are an end in yourself.

Question 58

The possibility of a supreme principle of morality depends on habit, according to Kant.

Question 59

The first formulation of the categorical imperative states that

A) one should respect only things.
B) one should treat other persons only as ends.
C) one should act only on principles one could rationally will everyone else to act on.
D) one should not assist others in need.

Question 60

How may the utilitarian distinguish between higher and lower pleasures? Is this a good test? Explain.

Question 61

Can the utilitarian allow that virtue is desirable in itself? Explain.

Question 62

According to Mill, the utilitarian can admit that virtue is desirable in itself.

Question 63

There are no general rules consistent with utilitarianism.

Question 64

A higher pleasure is one that no competent judge would choose to live without.

Question 65

A competent judge is

A) a well-educated person.
B) acquainted with both options under consideration.
C) virtuous.
D) a utilitarian.

Question 66

The greatest happiness principle states that actions are

A) right to the extent that they can be universally willed.
B) wrong to the extent that they contradict the divine will.
C) right to the extent that they promote pain.
D) wrong to the extent that they produce pain and prevent pleasure.

Question 67

Why does Aristotle claim that one cannot attain virtue by the study of philosophy alone?

Question 68

What is the importance of the mean for Aristotle's characterization of virtue? What does he mean by a mean relative to us, as opposed to a mean in the object?

Question 69

The study of moral virtue is purely intellectual.

Question 70

One acquires moral virtue by repeated performance of virtuous actions.

Question 71

There are no inherently bad actions.

Question 72

How do Akan thinkers define suban, or character? Why do Akan thinkers emphasize character in their ethics? Explain.

Question 73

According to Akan thinkers, how are moral virtues cultivated? Explain.

Question 74

Do you think that a person is responsible for his or her own character? Why or why not?

Question 75

According to the Akan, the focal point of ethical life is following moral rules.

Question 76

According to the Akan, character is totally innate.

Question 77

According to the Akan, character is defined in terms of habits.

Question 78

According to the Akan, character originates from a person's deeds or actions.

Question 79

The Akan believe that we are born virtuous.

Question 80

The Akan believe that we are never responsible for our own character.