Deck 1: Introduction to Research Methods

Question 1

Defend why (or why not) Wakefield's work on vaccinations, despite its ultimate outcome, can be considered as science.

Answer 1

Support for the research being science:
It was public and attempted at the goals of science. It described the outcome, it explained why the link existed, and sought to make predictions.
Support for the research being pseudo science:
The research was not objectively conducted. The parent observations were more subjective than objectively recorded but were presented as objective facts. The research also did not strive for truth but sought to support a particular belief. Finally, due to way the data were collected from parents, there was a lack of consistency.

Question 2

Identify one heuristic and one bias outlined in the textbook and explain how they might hypothetically impact the evaluation of a study.

Answer 2

The availability heuristic can influence readers' judgment of how likely a claim is true depending on how easily it is imaginable. Therefore, claims that are questionable but seem to make intuitive sense may be more easily believed.
Belief perseverance bias might work in the opposite direction and make true statements more difficult to believe in if the evaluator already has a bias for claims that were previously thought to be true.

Question 3

Present a scientific claim that you recently encountered. Outline the appropriate steps to evaluate this claim based on what you know about research methods.

Answer 3

The claim would vary, but students should discuss trusting the experts, reading past literature, and searching for convergence of evidence.

Question 4

Identify two ways that understanding research methods is valuable to the average person and provide an example.

Question 5

Identify the three goals of science and use one coherent example that addresses all three of them.

Question 6

In media reports of scientific findings, researchers are sometimes quoted promoting a particular treatment or product. Which of the following statements presents the claim and rational that you should be most skeptical of?

A) A researcher has conducted cancer research for 5 years; he claims that a particular cancer drug works well are less credible than other researchers who have been in the field for a longer period of time.
B) A researcher conducts experiments with animals; he claims that overcrowding causes stress. This is not credible because his studies do not involve human subjects.
C) A researcher conducts experiments outside the United States of America; he claims that a drug he developed is effective are less credible because his laboratory is outside federal regulations.
D) A researcher conducts experiments for a university that are funded by a pharmaceutical company; he claims that the company's drug is effective is less credible because he has vested interest.

Question 7

Which of the following does not describe a claim arising from cognitive bias?

A) David claims that mint tea helps with weight loss because he has lost 5 pounds since drinking it everyday.
B) Even when faced with contradictory evidence, Louis still maintains that algae pills cured his allergies.
C) After reading multiple media reports on sleep, Luke claims that everyone should sleep enough to be able to concentrate well.
D) Fred claims that a particular brand of energy drink is most effective because all his friends say so.

Question 8

People often over-estimate the annual number of deaths in plane crashes, compared to the much more numerous car-accident deaths. Jackie agrees and says it's because people are more used to seeing reports of plane accidents and thus it is more salient than reports on car accidents. Jackie is referring to

A) The availability heuristic
B) The anchoring heuristic
C) The discounting of base-rate heuristic
D) The belief perseverance bias

Question 9

Which of the following descriptions best describes the cognitive miser model?

A) It helps eliminate bias in the decision-maker by ignoring past information, as this helps the decision-maker focus on the present problem.
B) It helps use a vast amount of information, allowing the decision-maker to synthesize a large amount of data before a decision is made.
C) It maximizes use of past experience and efficiently demands attention to a small amount of presented information.
D) It helps the decision-maker evaluate nearly all possibilities before a decision is made: truly a well-informed decision!

Question 10

A researcher has obtained preliminary data for one of her studies. Which option best describes the attitude of the scientific community towards preliminary data?

A) Preliminary data is never presented at conferences to prevent over interpretation.
B) Preliminary data seldom differs from the actual data, so conclusions can be drawn from the state of preliminary data.
C) Preliminary data should be interpreted with caution but they are still often presented at conferences to be reviewed and critiqued.
D) Based on preliminary data, researchers are generally able to successfully replicate findings without much to worry about.

Question 11

Which of the following biases or heuristics make it particularly challenging for researchers to convince the public that the findings might be interesting and novel?

A) Framing effect Bias
B) Overconfidence Bias
C) Ingroup Bias
D) D) Hindsight Bias

Question 12

We have discussed many ways of evaluating research or research-based claims. Which one of the following descriptions is the least reasonable approach?

A) One way to approach evaluating research claims is to take it at face value based on a popular press article. This is because findings in the popular press are always critically based on scientific journals and wouldn't be published without a reason.
B) One way to approach evaluating research claims is to conduct your own research. Most individuals who are posing questions already have knowledge relevant to conducting research, it is often inexpensive, and conducting your own research is the most directly answers the question you are interested in.
C) One way to approach evaluating research claims is to read empirical articles. Although you may find contradictions, these are findings by experts who are trained in conducting research.
D) One way to approach evaluating research claims is to look at similar findings related to the original research questions you had in mind, because this often leads to finding replications that suggest that the claims are strong.

Question 13

The idea of converging evidence is when:

A) the evidence within one study tells a coherent story, addresses the research question clearly and provides a clear conclusion that allows the reader to understand the results.
B) the evidence across multiple studies tells a coherent story, finds a similar pattern of results, and suggests that they are robust.
C) contradictory evidence needs to be converged and taken into consideration because scientific progress is often made by resolving these differences.
D) the combination of results from different studies presents a discovery that was not apparent in any of the individual studies alone.

Question 14

Researchers often present preliminary data. Which one of the following best describes preliminary data?

A) Preliminary data are generally rarely presented publicly. Most scientists know the danger of over interpreting preliminary data, and thus their presentation at conferences is highly discouraged before the research itself is published in a peer-reviewed journal.
B) Preliminary data very rarely, if ever, misses the target. By the time the data has been collected, researchers often have a very clear idea of whether or not the claims are supported or rejected.
C) Preliminary data should be interpreted with caution. But even so, science is a peer-reviewed process and these data are widely accepted at conferences to be presented and critiqued.
D) Preliminary data are very useful for researchers. They exist because they are often related to some of the hottest research topics and findings. Furthermore, based on preliminary findings alone, researchers generally are already able to successfully conduct replications without much to worry about.

Question 15

Replication is an important aspect of scientific research. However, there are many instances in which replication occurs frequently within a particular laboratory but fails when other research laboratories attempt the experiment. One possibility is due to the ___________, as researchers are often known to have trouble switching views. Another reason may be the ___________, since researchers have vested interests in successfully conducting their work.

A) overconfidence bias; self-serving bias
B) self-serving bias; overconfidence bias
C) belief perseverance; overconfidence bias
D) belief perseverance; self-serving bias

Question 16

Which of the following regarding mood effects and decision fatigue is true?

A) Mood effects only influence research participants since researchers follow strict protocols when conducting research. Decision fatigue influences both the researcher and the participant.
B) Mood effects and decision fatigue both generally only influence the research participant.
C) Mood effects only influences the researcher; participants are often studied in well controlled environments that do not impact their mood. Decision fatigue, on the other hand, only influences the research participant. Repeated trials can exhaust a participant so researchers need to be mindful for how much they are asking from the participant.
D) Mood effects and decision fatigue both influence the researcher and the research participant.

Question 17

Your textbook outlined three goals for science. Which of the following is true about these goals?

A) The three goals are design, testing, and conclusion, representing the stages involved in design a study to explore a question.
B) The three goals are description, explanation, and prediction. They are sequential stages that do not interact.
C) The three goals, design, testing, and conclusion are integral in helping researchers look for converging evidence.
D) The three goals are description, explanation, and prediction. They are intertwined stages that influence one another in the scientific process.

Question 18

One aspect of the scientific method is that it is consistent. Which one of the following claims is not a result of science being conducted in a consistent manner?

A) The findings can be replicated.
B) The findings are generalizable.
C) The findings have the potential to show a convergence of evidence.
D) The findings are reliable.

Question 19

What does it mean when the scientific method seeks for objective research?

A) The research must have a clear goal.
B) The research must be based on the scientists' personal beliefs.
C) The research must be based on striving for the truth.
D) The research must have a subjective piece to balance the objective portion.

Question 20

Which of the following is best categorized as a pseudo-scientific claim?

A) A company claiming that experimental results suggest that their product significantly boosts the immune system.
B) Bob's grandmother claiming that researchers have found that quality sleep affects how memories are consolidated based on an article she read online.
C) A group of expert researchers citing anecdotal evidence in a presentation to claim support to their theory about how stress influences workplace performance.
D) A team of undergraduate students drawing conclusions on social media use based on a survey they conducted in a research methods course.

Question 21

Which of the following best describes the relationship between basic and applied research?

A) Basic research relies heavily on the findings of applied research.
B) Basic research often yields immediate practical breakthroughs, whereas findings of applied research yield breakthroughs at a more theoretical level.
C) Basic research produces findings that are often the foundation of applied research.
D) Basic research and applied research often do not have any relation at all.

Question 22

A researcher has recently published an article about the benefits of a smartphone application for increasing concentration levels and intelligence. You later find out that this researcher owns shares in the company that developed this application. Which of the following is now the most reasonable response to the researcher's claims?

A) The researcher has a vested interest in the success of the application and might not be objective about how good it really is.
B) Prior research has shown that these smartphone applications do increase intelligence, so the researcher is probably objective.
C) The researcher is an expert in cognitive science, thus the claims are still valid.
D) The company did not pay the researcher for doing the research, so the researcher is not biased.

Question 23

Which of the following is the best way of evaluating claims in the media?

A) By looking for claims endorsed by the most prominent celebrity.
B) By gathering multiple media reports and checking if they agree.
C) By looking for the most read article in a popular news outlet.
D) By gathering the latest articles within the past six months and prioritizing the ones that are most read.

Question 24

John would like to find out whether people who spend a lot of time on social media have lower self-esteem. Which of the following best describes a method of evaluating this claim by searching for converging evidence?

A) John talks to his professor about self-esteem research.
B) John asks his friends for their opinions.
C) John looks up several articles on self-esteem and social media use.
D) John reads a book that condemns the extensive use of social media.

Question 25

Which of the following options describes an instance of the replication of scientific findings?

A) When multiple media reports cite a particular finding.
B) When several researchers independently vouch for the validity of a study's conclusions.
C) When at least one other identical study has found the same results.
D) When the findings have been cited by at least one other researcher.

Question 26

Which of the following pieces of information is least likely to help readers to evaluate the quality of research claims made by a media article?

A) The names of the researchers
B) Where the research was conducted
C) The duration of the research
D) Whether the research has been published

Question 27

Julie believes that she has to eat waffles every morning before an exam to score an A. Thus, every morning before an exam she eats waffles, and subsequently always scores an A. Which is the most likely explanation for the link between Julie eating waffles and scoring an A?

A) Stroop effect
B) Discounting base-rate information
C) Self-serving bias
D) Causality bias

Question 28

In many cults, when prophecies do not come true, members do not quit. Instead, they reinterpret the failure of specific predictions to support the teachings of the cult. Which of the following best describes this phenomenon?

A) Ingroup bias
B) Belief perseverance bias
C) Decision fatigue
D) Mood effects

Question 29

In psychological studies, it is not uncommon for researchers to hire assistants to conduct the actual experiment, and for these assistants to be "blinded" to the purpose of the study. When someone is "blinded", it means that they do not know the predicted outcome of the experiment. What aspect of the scientific method does this practice serve?

A) Objectivity
B) Subjectivity
C) Tradition
D) Bias

Question 30

Preliminary data are generally not publicized in any way. Scientists generally wait until collecting all their data before presenting any of their data either in manuscript or presentation form.

Question 31

Cognitive biases are simple procedures that allow individuals to make fast, yet not necessarily perfect, decisions to solve problems.

Question 32

The Cognitive Miser Model explains how individuals come to making decisions attending to a relatively small amount of information that integrates past experiences.

Question 33

Basic and applied research are two strands that inform each other.

Question 34

Scientific research ought to build on and extend past work.

Question 35

Using a scientific approach to research means that one is always using subjective approaches.

Question 36

One of the goals of science is to make predictions.

Question 37

The Stroop effect is an example of scientific research that exemplifies cognitive biases.

Question 38

If a specific area of research has findings that show converging evidence, one can infer that replication has occurred.

Question 39

You should never trust a research claim at face value, no matter how experienced the researcher is.

Question 40

Anecdotal evidence, as seen with the example of Power bands that athletes use, are a hallmark of scientific research.

Question 41

Findings and studies that are consistent are generally not reliable.

Question 42

Cognitive biases can influence your ability to evaluate a research claim.

Question 43

Secondary sources are great outlets for individuals to get scientific claims that are written directly from the researchers.

Question 44

Well-known institutions are always trustworthy and never have any questionable practices that might lead one to question their claims and research findings.