Deck 16: Conclusions: Who Are We

Question 1

Making and using tools is not unique to hominids/humans but found in at least three other primate species.

Answer 1

Indeed, making and using tools is not a behavior exclusive to hominids (members of the human family tree, including extinct species closely related to humans). Research has shown that at least three other primate species exhibit tool use and even tool-making behaviors.
1. **Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)**: Chimpanzees are well-known for their tool use and have been observed using sticks to fish for termites, using stones to crack nuts, and even shaping sticks to create more effective tools for specific tasks. They are capable of a level of planning and foresight in their tool use, which was once thought to be a uniquely human trait.
2. **Bonobos (Pan paniscus)**: Bonobos, who are closely related to chimpanzees, also use tools in the wild, although they are not as prolific tool users as chimpanzees. They have been observed using branches to facilitate foraging or to create a simple shelter.
3. **Capuchin monkeys (Cebus spp.)**: Capuchins are known for their use of rocks to crack open nuts and seeds, which requires them to understand the concept of using an external object to achieve a goal. They have also been seen using sticks to dig, probe for food, and even as a weapon or a tool for social displays.
4. **Orangutans (Pongo spp.)**: Orangutans have been observed using tools in the wild, such as sticks to extract insects or seeds from hard-to-reach places, and leaves as gloves or napkins. They are also known to use branches to test water depth or as a bridge to cross water bodies.
These examples show that the ability to use and make tools is not unique to humans and is found in various forms across different primate species. This behavior is likely linked to the cognitive abilities of primates, including problem-solving and the understanding of cause and effect. Tool use in primates is a subject of great interest in the study of evolution and animal cognition, as it provides insights into the development of intelligence and culture in the animal kingdom.

Question 2

Speech probably evolved from language in a single event.

Answer 2

The statement "Speech probably evolved from language in a single event" is not consistent with the current understanding of the evolution of language and speech among scientists. Language and speech are complex processes that likely evolved over a long period of time through gradual modifications rather than a single event.
Language is a system of communication that involves the use of words in a structured and conventional way. Speech, on the other hand, refers to the expression of language through vocal sounds. While speech is one modality of language, language can also be expressed through other means such as writing or sign language.
The evolution of language and speech is a topic of much debate and research among linguists, anthropologists, and evolutionary biologists. The prevailing view is that language and speech evolved through a series of incremental steps and adaptations that provided selective advantages to early humans. These adaptations likely included changes in the anatomy and physiology of the vocal tract, the development of complex cognitive abilities to process and produce language, and the social need for more effective communication.
There is no fossil record of language, so much of what we understand about its evolution comes from studying the anatomy of early hominids, the development of language in children, and the structure of languages themselves. The evolution of language and speech is thought to have been influenced by a variety of factors, including social organization, tool use, and dietary changes that may have affected the structure of the mouth and throat.
In summary, speech did not evolve from language in a single event; rather, both language and speech likely developed through a long and complex evolutionary process involving multiple factors and stages.

Question 3

The authors of this book conclude there is no single factor that made humans human.

Answer 3

The authors of the book in question appear to argue that the evolution of humans cannot be attributed to a single factor or event. Instead, they suggest that a complex interplay of various elements contributed to the development of the unique traits that characterize humanity. These factors could include biological evolution, environmental changes, the development of language and culture, technological innovation, and social dynamics, among others.
The idea that there is no single factor that made humans human reflects the understanding that human evolution is a multifaceted process. It acknowledges that our species, Homo sapiens, has undergone a long and intricate journey of adaptation and change. This perspective is supported by evidence from various scientific fields, including anthropology, genetics, paleontology, and archaeology.
By recognizing the complexity of human evolution, the authors likely emphasize the importance of a holistic approach to understanding our past. This approach considers the interconnections between different aspects of human life and the ways in which they have influenced one another over time. It also allows for a more nuanced appreciation of the diversity and adaptability that have been key to the survival and success of our species.

Question 4

Bipedalism occurred in stages, not in one single event.

Question 5

Early hominids and chimpanzees probably had the same brain size.

Question 6

Bipedalism, dentition, and brain size evolution all can be seen as chronologically concordant.

Question 7

The sequence of stone tools is: chopper, core and flake, blade.

Question 8

Your authors conclude the word "inheritance" should be used only in connection with biological evolution.

Question 9

Biological change is slow because it adheres to Mendelian genetics but cultural change can be fast because it is Lamarckian in mode.

Question 10

The authors of this book conclude there are enough similarities between biological and cultural evolution to call them as a single unit "biocultural evolution."

Question 11

What made humans human?

A) bipedalism
B) big brains and intelligence
C) tool manufacturing
D) all of the above

Question 12

Intelligence helped make us human. What kind of problems did more intelligence allow us to solve?

A) coping with predators
B) general cognitive ability
C) coping with environmental change
D) getting better quality food

Question 13

Compare the evolution of bipedalism, dentition, and brain size, and the conclusion is that

A) bipedalism changed earliest, but in steps
B) bipedalism and dentition changed together and in one single event
C) they all evolved at different times and as separate events
D) bipedalism and dentition evolved independently, but as single events; brain size was an ongoing process

Question 14

Chronologically, which came last?

A) cave paintings
B) small sculpted animals
C) Venus statuettes
D) jewelry

Question 15

Which similarity/ies is/are there between biological and cultural change? Both

A) depend on contingency
B) can be said to be inherited
C) have similar rates of change
D) A and B are correct

Question 16

All of the following show important differences between biological evolution and culture change EXCEPT

A) conscious choice of change or not
B) number of individuals involved
C) blending of traits
D) contingency principle

Question 17

The biggest problem to the future of our species likely resides in

A) overpopulation
B) technology "taking over"
C) cell phones
D) HIV and other virulent diseases

Question 18

Encapsulating the world's demography at the beginning of the new millennium, you would claim all of the following EXCEPT

A) less than 1/3 are "white"
B) less than 1/3 are Christian
C) 60% are female
D) Asians make up the largest percentage

Question 19

Discuss your author's conclusions that what made humans human was not a single factor nor did it happen all at the same time.

Question 20

Discuss the evolution of bipedalism, brain size, and dentition relative to their chronological concordance or disconcordance.

Question 21

Discuss tool technology, basic economy, social organization, and art relative to their chronological concordance or disconcordance.

Question 22

Though there are more differences than similarities between the processes of biological and cultural change, discuss the two basic similarities: inheritance and contingency.

Question 23

Compare biological evolution and culture change relative to the mechanisms/causes of change: mutations/inventions, selection, flow, and drift.

Question 24

Discuss the differences between biological and cultural change other than the mechanisms/causes of change.