Question 1

As a form of knowledge, interpretation is highly personal, not subject to the consensus of observers, and therefore not subject to refutation or proof.

Accepted Answer

Interpretation is subjective and depends on the individual's perspective and experiences, making it difficult to refute or prove.

Question 2

As originally formulated by Bacon, empiricism allowed that scientific observers would be guided in the collection of data by their theories about a given phenomenon.

Accepted Answer

Empiricism, as formulated by Francis Bacon, emphasized observation and experience as the primary sources of knowledge, advocating for data collection without preconceived theories or biases.

Question 3

Replicability refers to the assumption that an objective observer who uses the same techniques as previous objective observers to describe a given phenomenon should achieve similar conclusions.

Accepted Answer

Replicability is based on the principle that objective observers using the same techniques as previous observers should arrive at similar conclusions, which makes it a true statement.

Question 4

Nomological/deductive theories are as common in the social sciences as in the physical sciences.

Accepted Answer

Nomological/deductive theories, which rely on universal laws for prediction and explanation, are more common in the physical sciences. The social sciences, due to the complexity and variability of human behavior, often rely on different methodologies that accommodate for the unpredictability and contextual nature of social phenomena.

Question 5

The criterion of falsifiability holds that a scientific theory must be based on statements that can potentially be proven false by observation.

Accepted Answer

The criterion of falsifiability is a fundamental principle of empirical scientific inquiry, which holds that for a theory to be scientific, there must be at least one possible observation or experiment that could prove it false. This means that any hypothesis or theory that cannot be tested or verified by empirical evidence is considered unscientific. Therefore, scientific theories must be based on statements that are falsifiable and subject to empirical testing.

Question 6

Scientists refer to a &#34;fact&#34; as a theory that has been proven true by repeated observation.

Accepted Answer

A fact is actually something that is known to be true with certainty, regardless of whether there is a theory explaining it or not. Theories can be based on facts, but they are not the same thing.

Question 7

In studying the history of scientific discovery, Thomas Kuhn observed that scientists frequently rejected the findings and assumptions of their predecessors rather than building upon them.

Accepted Answer

Thomas Kuhn's observations led him to propose the concept of paradigm shifts in which scientific communities experience a sudden change in the way they view and approach their field of study. This often involves a rejection of previous assumptions and theories.

Question 8

Hume's &#34;Fallacy of Selectivity&#34; points out that scientists do not reason inductively, but allow their pre-existing beliefs to guide their observations.

Accepted Answer

Hume argued that scientists do not reason inductively, but instead selectively choose what evidence to observe based on their pre-existing beliefs. This means that they are not purely objective in their observations and may not arrive at unbiased conclusions.

Question 9

According to Kuhn, scientists adopt a given paradigm because it has been shown as more accurate and superior in its explanatory power than its rivals.

Accepted Answer

Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions suggests that scientists adopt a paradigm not because it is more accurate or superior, but because it provides a shared framework and set of assumptions that guide their research.

Question 10

Kuhn originally argued that scientific paradigms are incommensurable, in that they could not be evaluated against one another in terms of their validity.

Accepted Answer

Kuhn's concept of incommensurability refers to the idea that scientific paradigms are based on different conceptual frameworks and therefore cannot be directly compared or evaluated against one another in terms of their validity. This led to his famously controversial claim that scientific progress is not a linear accumulation of knowledge but rather a series of shifts in paradigms.

Deck 1: Of Politics and Paradigms