Deck 12: Using Single-Subject Designs

Question 1

The pioneering experimentalists:

A) avoided the single-subject approach because it was not rigorous enough.
B) controlled error variance by averaging subjects within groups.
C) managed to identify important psychological phenomena.
D) None of the answers is correct.

Answer 1

managed to identify important psychological phenomena.

Question 2

Despite intersubject variability, the within-subjects approach worked because:

A) a large number of observations were collected from a single subject.
B) incidental factors that might contribute unwanted variability were rigidly controlled.
C) the investigators focused their attentions on powerful variables.
D) All of the answers are correct.

Answer 2

All of the answers are correct.

Question 3

_____ was pioneered by Sir Frances Galton.

A) The single-subject approach
B) The application of statistical techniques to the study of individual differences
C) Early psychophysical research
D) Laboratory research

Answer 3

The application of statistical techniques to the study of individual differences

Question 4

With the advent of the group approach, the single-subject approach:

A) waned in popularity.
B) became more popular.
C) continued to remain as popular.
D) died for a couple of years.

Question 5

B. F. Skinner and his followers established their own journal, the _____, because they were unwilling to use inferential statistics to establish the reliability of their findings, making it increasingly difficult to get their results published.

A) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
B) Journal of Experimental Psychology
C) Journal of the Psychonomic Society
D) Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior

Question 6

The _____ design was developed primarily by B. F. Skinner and his followers.

A) discrete trials
B) baseline
C) interrupted-trials
D) averaged-baseline

Question 7

In the simplest case, a baseline design involves exposing a subject to a(n) _____ phase to assess the subject's behavior in the absence of an experimental treatment.

A) baseline
B) treatment
C) control
D) intervention

Question 8

During an experiment that uses a baseline design, behavior during a baseline phase:

A) shows the effects of an independent variable.
B) provides an assessment of behavior in the absence of an experimental treatment.
C) is normally too erratic to be of any use and is not usually included in the analysis of data.
D) None of the answers is correct.

Question 9

In the simplest case, a baseline design involves exposing a subject to a(n) _____ phase to assess the subject's behavior during the application of an experimental treatment.

A) baseline
B) experimental
C) treatment
D) intervention

Question 10

In a baseline design, the phase of an experiment during which a subject is exposed to an experimental treatment is called the _____ phase.

A) experimental
B) treatment
C) baseline
D) intervention

Question 11

Unlike group-based designs, a baseline design _____.

A) relies on averaging to deal with uncontrolled variability produced by extraneous variables
B) focuses on the behavior of a single subject both within and across experimental treatments
C) exposes a subject to an intervention phase to assess behavior in the absence of an experimental treatment
D) relies on intrasubject replication to establish the generality of the findings across subjects

Question 12

Which of the following is a characteristic of baseline designs?

A) They focus on the behavior of multiple subjects and rely on averaging to deal with uncontrolled variability.
B) Intersubject replication is used to establish the internal validity of findings.
C) A subject typically remains under a given experimental treatment until the baseline meets a stability criterion.
D) A subject is exposed to a baseline phase to assess behavior during the application of an experimental treatment.

Question 13

The group approach assumes that if experimental controls fail to reduce uncontrolled variation, then _____ should be used to control it.

A) intrasubject replication
B) intersubject replication
C) statistical methods
D) complete ignorance

Question 14

In single-subject designs, uncontrolled variability produced by extraneous variables is handled:

A) by averaging across subjects within groups.
B) statistically after an experiment is over.
C) by ignoring it.
D) by tight experimental control.

Question 15

Waiting for your subject's behavior to "settle down" before going to the next phase of an experiment exemplifies a:

A) baseline.
B) discrete trials criterion.
C) stability criterion.
D) drifting baseline.

Question 16

In a baseline design, a subject typically remains under a given experimental treatment until a behavioral baseline meets a stability criterion, which _____.

A) imposes an objective rule for deciding that the baseline has stabilized
B) statistically adjusts scores from deviant subjects
C) eliminates deviant subjects from your experiment
D) None of the answers is correct.

Question 17

In the context of baseline designs, which of the following statements is true about intrasubject replication?

A) It allows to establish the reliability of the collected observations within each phase.
B) It purports to establish the external validity of the findings made during a study.
C) It imposes an objective rule for deciding whether a behavioral baseline has stabilized.
D) It assesses whether changes in the baseline level produced by an intervention are reversible.

Question 18

In a single-subject baseline design, multiple subjects are included in an experiment so that:

A) data can be averaged before the analysis.
B) intrasubject replication can be done.
C) generality of the findings across subjects can be established.
D) power can be increased.

Question 19

Intersubject replication helps establish the _____ of data in a single-subject baseline design.

A) usefulness
B) generality
C) statistical reliability
D) power

Question 20

Which of the following terms refers to extensions that incorporate aspects of the original experiment while changing others?

A) Intrasubject replication
B) Intersubject replication
C) Systematic replication
D) Direct replication

Question 21

You conduct a single-subject experiment to see whether you can reduce disruptive behavior in a third-grader, Jonathon, by ignoring instances when he talks out of turn. You first observe his behavior under normal conditions, and then after his teacher has been instructed to ignore him when he talks out of turn. You find that his talking out of turn is reduced when it is ignored. In this scenario, _____.

A) you can safely conclude that your treatment was the only variable that affected Jonathon's urge to talk out of turn
B) you can conclude that the effect of your treatment is only temporary
C) you cannot safely conclude that your treatment changed his behavior because your treatment is confounded with time
D) None of the answers is correct.

Question 22

A _____ is designed to assess whether any changes in a baseline level produced by an intervention are revocable.

A) baseline phase
B) stability criterion
C) reversal strategy
D) nested design

Question 23

In baseline designs, when a subject is exposed to each of the two phases twice, a baseline phase and an intervention phase, it yields a(n) _____ design.

A) ABAB
B) ABA
C) multiple-baseline
D) discrete trials

Question 24

The ABAB design provides a:

A) complete intersubject replication within an experiment.
B) complete intrasubject replication of an experiment.
C) partial intrasubject replication of an experiment.
D) partial intersubject replication within an experiment.

Question 25

Drifting baselines arise in cases in which:

A) there is a wide variation in baseline behavior within a baseline phase.
B) it may prove impossible to stabilize a baseline against slow, systematic changes.
C) there is a failure to achieve intersubject replication.
D) All of the answers are correct.

Question 26

_____ is a potentially serious problem that arises if baseline levels of performance cannot be revoked during reversal.

A) An unrecoverable baseline
B) Unsystematic within-phase baseline variability
C) A drifting baseline
D) None of the answers is correct.

Question 27

Partially recoverable baselines pose few problems for analysis as long as:

A) the drift evident in the baseline is systematic and is in an upward direction.
B) the drift evident in the baseline is systematic and is in a downward direction.
C) a clear, replicable change remains in the levels of performance across treatments.
D) All of the answers are correct.

Question 28

When the baselines of different subjects in an experiment level off at very different values even though the conditions imposed on the subjects are nominally identical, you have the problem of:

A) unsystematic between-subjects baselines.
B) unequal baselines between subjects.
C) between-subjects baseline drifts.
D) None of the answers is correct.

Question 29

In the context of problem baselines, even if all subjects show similar baseline levels during a baseline phase, the particular levels obtained may not be useful for evaluating the effect of subsequent manipulations. This gives rise to the problem of _____.

A) inappropriate baseline levels
B) drifting baselines
C) unrecoverable baselines
D) unequal baselines between subjects

Question 30

In the context of the types of single-subject baseline design, which of the following is a characteristic of AB designs, where A refers to the baseline phase and B refers to the intervention phase of an experiment?

A) They present only a single administration of each condition and thus lack intrasubject replication.
B) They include a reversal phase in which baseline conditions are reestablished after exposure to a treatment.
C) They are appropriate only if it is desirable to return a subject to pre experimental conditions prior to the termination of a study.
D) They are designed to assess whether any changes in the baseline level produced by an intervention are reversible.

Question 31

Using multiple levels of an independent variable in single-subject designs presents certain problems because:

A) there are no statistical tests that can be applied to the resulting data.
B) subjects may get tired too quickly to allow for complete replication.
C) only one or a few subjects are tested, and completely counterbalancing the order of treatments across subjects is not usually possible.
D) All of the answers are correct.

Question 32

When treatments cause irreversible changes in behavior, _____ designs can be used.

A) AB-AC-AB
B) ABABA
C) reverse-baseline
D) multiple-baseline

Question 33

The multiple-baseline design uses an untreated behavior as a:

A) partial control for time-correlated changes that may confound the effect of an independent variable.
B) way to achieve intrasubject replication.
C) statistical control for treated behavior.
D) None of the answers is correct.

Question 34

In the changing criterion design, one begins with _____.

A) controlling the extraneous variables that introduce unwanted variability in the dependent variables
B) a baseline phase to assess the current level of a target behavior
C) adjusting the target criterion to move a small step toward the ultimate goal
D) an intervention phase to set an initial target criterion for a target behavior

Question 35

If you focus on how behavior changes immediately following a change in the level of an independent variable, you are studying:

A) steady-state behavior.
B) statistical noise.
C) behavioral dynamics.
D) behavioral statistics.

Question 36

_____ designs employ a continuously varying independent variable.

A) Baseline
B) Dynamic
C) Discrete trial
D) Multiple-baseline

Question 37

In the _____ design, individual subjects receive each treatment condition of an experiment dozens of times.

A) baseline
B) reversal
C) multiple-baseline
D) discrete trials

Question 38

Unlike the baseline design, the discrete trials design:

A) relies more heavily on inferential statistics to establish.
B) does not produce a continuous within-treatment baseline that can be adjusted and fine-tuned.
C) places less emphasis on rigid control over variables.
D) requires more number of subjects.

Question 39

Those who advocate applying inferential statistics to data from single-subject designs:

A) believe that statistics should replace replication to establish reliability.
B) believe that statistics should be used only when intersubject replication is not possible.
C) would not want to use statistics as a substitute for control over variables and replication.
D) believe that control over variables should be replaced by statistical control.

Question 40

Some researchers argue that the desired level of control is difficult to achieve and suggest:

A) giving up on doing the experiment.
B) using a baseline rather than a discrete trials design in such cases.
C) that inferential statistics may provide a solution in such cases.
D) None of the answers is correct.

Question 41

When the usual statistical procedures developed for group designs are to be applied to data from single-subject designs, the most straightforward approach is to use the:

A) between-subjects differences to estimate error variance.
B) multiple observations taken within a treatment to provide an estimate of uncontrolled error variance.
C) multiple observations taken between treatments to provide an estimate of uncontrolled error variance.
D) between-subjects differences to estimate error variance and the multiple observations taken within a treatment to provide an estimate of uncontrolled error variance.

Question 42

Using multiple observations taken within a treatment as an estimate of uncontrolled error variance is upset by:

A) drifting baselines.
B) unsystematic within-phase variability.
C) low intrasubject replication.
D) serial dependency.

Question 43

The main advantage of the single-subject approach is:

A) its effective control of subject variables such as personality and intelligence.
B) its ability to increase external validity by increasing internal validity.
C) its focus on controlling error variance.
D) its ability to prevent potential carryover effects from confounding the effects of independent variables.

Question 44

Which of the following statements is true about the single-subject approach?

A) Causal relationships can be established by using even just one subject.
B) Tight experimental control of extraneous variables increases external validity.
C) Multiple subjects' behaviors are followed over a relatively large number of observations.
D) Subject variables such as personality and intelligence can be easily controlled.

Question 45

Adjustment and fine-tuning of baselines over time:

A) is a serious source of confounding in single-subject designs.
B) provides an extended opportunity to identify previously unsuspected important variables.
C) gives you a mechanism to identify potential sources of confounding.
D) None of the answers is correct.

Question 46

A problem with the single-subject approach is that it:

A) is inappropriate for many research applications.
B) is highly vulnerable to the influence of extraneous variables.
C) lacks internal validity.
D) All of the answers are correct.

Question 47

In contrast to baseline designs, a group-based design focuses on the behavior of a single subject both within and across experimental treatments.

Question 48

In baseline designs, an intervention phase is used to assess a subject's behavior in the absence of an experimental treatment.

Question 49

In the group approach, uncontrolled variability of the baseline within each phase that is produced by extraneous variables is handled by tight experimental control.

Question 50

A stability criterion is used in a single-subject design to establish the generality of results.

Question 51

A single-subject researcher never pays attention to identify the possible sources of variability.

Question 52

When using baseline designs during an experiment, the only way to determine whether baselines have met a stability criterion is to update a baseline plot after each session and then examine it.

Question 53

The single-subject baseline design relies on intrasubject replication to establish the reliability of the observations collected within each phase.

Question 54

In single-subject designs, tight experimental control of extraneous variables increases internal validity.

Question 55

In the single-subject baseline design, intrasubject replication is used to establish the generality of the findings across subjects.

Question 56

A direct replication of a study replicates the original study exactly.

Question 57

In baseline designs, when one moves from baseline to intervention and then back to baseline, this return to a previous phase is termed a reversal strategy.

Question 58

Partially recoverable baselines frequently occur when learning develops during a treatment condition.

Question 59

Multiple-baseline designs are used to deal with irreversible changes in behavior in single-subject baseline designs.

Question 60

In a changing criterion design, it is never necessary to reduce the set criterion once a subject has achieved it.

Question 61

In dynamic designs, behavior immediately following the change in level can be observed to determine what has been called behavioral dynamics.

Question 62

Dynamic designs provide the discrete values of an independent variable that serve to distinguish the baseline and intervention phases of baseline designs.

Question 63

Both the baseline and the discrete trials designs focus on group behavior rather than the behavior of an individual participant.

Question 64

Those who advocate applying inferential statistics to data from single-subject designs use them as a substitute for control over variables and replication.

Question 65

It is a cardinal sin to apply inferential statistics to data from single-subject designs.

Question 66

A disadvantage of single-subject designs is that the design is inappropriate for many research applications.

Question 67

In the single-subject approach, an intensive investigation of the behavior of a single subject is advantageous because the long observational period often reveals nuances of behavior that might be missed in a short-term design.

Question 68

Discuss the history of single-subject designs.

Question 69

List the characteristics of the single-subject baseline design. Identify its key features, and explain how these features are used in research.

Question 70

Compare and contrast the group approach and the single-subject approach.

Question 71

Design an ABAB experiment to show the effect of a treatment (for example, reinforcement or punishment) on behavior. Clearly label each phase, and indicate why each phase is included. Also, show a graph of the expected results if your treatment were effective.

Question 72

List the problems researchers are most likely to deal with in baseline designs in addition to excessive uncontrolled variability. Describe their causes and ways to handle them.

Question 73

Design a multiple-baseline experiment on reducing bad habits. Clearly label each phase, and indicate why each phase is included. Also, show a graph of the expected results if your treatment were effective.

Question 74

In a changing criterion design, is it ever necessary to reduce an initially set criterion once it has been achieved by a subject? Explain.

Question 75

What is behavioral dynamics? How does it differ from an approach that looks only at steady-state behavior?

Question 76

Give an example of a dynamic design.

Question 77

Compare and contrast the discrete trials and the baseline designs.

Question 78

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using single-subject designs.