Deck 8: The Organization of Knowledge in the Mind

Question 1

Your knowledge about cognitive psychology,about world history,about your own personal history,and about mathematics all rely on your mental representation of what cognitive psychologists call __________ knowledge.

A)procedural
B)declarative
C)semantic
D)conceptual

Answer 1

declarative

Question 2

With prototype theory,______ are features that are typically present and are consistent with one's exemplars for that particular concept.

A)prototypes
B)characteristic features
C)exemplars
D)defining features

Answer 2

characteristic features

Question 3

This particular type of category,unlike other types of categories,is flexible and can change over time.

A)ad hoc categories
B)artifact categories
C)natural categories
D)polymorphous categories

Answer 3

ad hoc categories

Question 4

__________ are thoughts or ideas (or words)that can be described more aptly by using characteristic features than by using defining features.

A)Fuzzy concepts
B)Reference concepts
C)Classical concepts
D)Exemplars

Question 5

__________ are words such as bachelor that can be readily defined through defining features.

A)Fuzzy concepts
B)Reference concepts
C)Classical concepts
D)Prototypes

Question 6

__________ refer(s)to the use of multiple approaches and techniques to come together in addressing a problem or in responding to a question.

A)The multiplicity method
B)The multi-techniques approach
C)Converging operations
D)Diverging operations

Question 7

__________ are thoughts or ideas (or words)that can be described more aptly by using defining features than by using characteristics features.

A)Fuzzy concepts
B)Reference concepts
C)Classical concepts
D)Exemplars

Question 8

__________ refers to an approach to understanding cognition that involves an attempt to enable machines such as computers to simulate various cognitive processes that characterize human intelligence.

A)Elementary information process
B)The simulated intelligence view
C)Schematic simulation
D)Artificial intelligence

Question 9

Whereas a __________ feature is possessed by every instance of a concept,a __________ feature need not be.

A)prototypical;defining
B)defining;prototypical
C)characteristic;defining
D)defining;characteristic

Question 10

__________ are a set of components,each of which is an essential element of a given concept,and which together compose the properties that uniquely define the concept.

A)Defining features
B)Prototypical features
C)Characteristic features
D)Deep structures

Question 11

__________ knowledge refers to information regarding facts and ideas,which can be stated in terms of propositions (sometimes described as "knowing that").

A)Semantic
B)Procedural
C)Declarative
D)Conceptual

Question 12

The fundamental unit of symbolic knowledge is the __________,which may be organized into __________.

A)concept;schemas
B)concept;hidden units
C)node;schemas
D)node;concepts

Question 13

When talking about concepts and categories,items such as airplanes,cars,and boats are examples of _____.

A)artifact categories
B)classical concepts
C)fuzzy concepts
D)natural categories

Question 14

__________ knowledge refers to information regarding how to execute a sequence of operations (sometimes described as "knowing how").

A)How-to
B)Executive
C)Declarative
D)Procedural

Question 15

Which of the following is not a defining feature of bachelor?

A)unmarried
B)childless
C)male
D)adult

Question 16

When talking about concepts and categories,items such as turtles,alligators,trees,and grass are examples of _____.

A)artifact categories
B)classical concepts
C)fuzzy concepts
D)natural categories

Question 17

The term wife is comprised of a number of components,namely adult,female,and married.These are called _____ according to the componential theory of meaning.

A)defining features
B)prototypical features
C)characteristic features
D)deep structures

Question 18

Your knowledge of how to ride a bicycle,how to write your signature,how to drive a car to a familiar location,and how to catch a ball all depend on your mental representation of what cognitive psychologists call __________ knowledge.

A)how-to
B)executive
C)declarative
D)procedural

Question 19

The fundamental unit of symbolic knowledge is typically viewed as

A)a concept.
B)a word.
C)a morpheme.
D)a schema.

Question 20

A __________ refers to an idea or a thought about something.

A)frame
B)concept
C)morpheme
D)schema

Question 21

A child passes a person on the street that has a short hairstyle.Although this hairstyle is more typical for males,most children understand that the person could be a female.This understanding,that sometimes the underlying reality cannot be directly observed,is referred to as

A)functionalism.
B)essentialism.
C)inheritance.
D)fundamentalism.

Question 22

__________ refer to several alternative typical representatives of a semantic category.

A)Fuzzy concepts
B)Classical concepts
C)Prototypes
D)Exemplars

Question 23

This view for categorizing concepts is that we have several typical examples of the category that can be used for comparison purposes when trying to categorize a new item.

A)prototype
B)characteristic features
C)exemplar
D)defining features

Question 24

This mental framework provides a meaningful structure for concepts that are related,and provides general facts about the concept that allows one to make inferences based on prior experiences.

A)compound cue
B)schemas
C)script
D)spreading activation theories

Question 25

A concept's basic level of specificity is the one that has the __________ number of distinctive properties.

A)smallest
B)prototypical
C)standard
D)largest

Question 26

A __________ refers to a mental framework for meaningfully organizing various interrelated concepts.

A)convergent operation
B)production system
C)schema
D)domain-general process

Question 27

This notion for categorization is that the _____ contain(s)those defining features that must be present in order to be considered part of that category.

A)exemplars
B)theory-based view
C)inheritance
D)core

Question 28

The connections between nodes are __________ relationships,which might involve category membership,attributes,or some other semantic relation.

A)labeled
B)scripted
C)framed
D)causative

Question 29

A __________ refers to an element representing a concept within a semantic network.

A)frame
B)script
C)node
D)schema

Question 30

According to the Varying Abstraction Model (VAM),prototypes and exemplars are simply two extremes on a continuum of abstraction with exemplars nearer the ______ end of the spectrum and prototypes nearer the ______ end of the spectrum.

A)concrete;abstract
B)featural;concrete
C)abstract;averaged
D)averaged;featural

Question 31

The labeled relationship of attributes,which connects "furry" to "mammal," establishes meaningful connections between

A)nodes.
B)schema
C)frames.
D)scripts.

Question 32

A __________ refers to a web of labeled relations among interconnected elements.

A)frame
B)script
C)semantic network
D)node

Question 33

When shown a red,edible,roundish object,you would most probably call it an apple,rather than a delicious apple or a red delicious apple.This fact suggests that "apple" is __________ of the concept.

A)the basic level of specificity
B)a defining feature
C)a characteristic feature
D)a deep characteristic

Question 34

An "is a" category membership relation,which connects "pig" to "mammal," establishes meaningful connections between

A)nodes.
B)schemas.
C)frames.
D)scripts.

Question 35

Classical concepts are to _____ as Fuzzy concepts are to _____.

A)defining features;prototypes
B)prototypes;defining features
C)exemplars;inheritance
D)inheritance;exemplars

Question 36

A dog could be described as being a mammal that barks and has four legs,two ears,a tail,and a slightly elongated snout.Jenny's neighbor has a "dog" that has lost a leg and his tail.According to theory-based views of categorization,Jenny is most likely to classify the neighbor's pet as

A)an unknown animal.
B)another type of animal.
C)a type of dog.
D)an unknown object.

Question 37

Ben's parents call to tell him they will be going to a fancy restaurant for dinner.Without any additional information,most people will assume that someone paid a tip to the waiter or waitress at dinner that night.The ability to fill in missing information (e.g. ,knowing that a tip was paid)is best explained by the use of

A)associations.
B)schemas.
C)semantics.
D)concepts.

Question 38

According to a semantic-network model,when we think about cats,the __________ for cats becomes __________.

A)network;activated
B)frame;inhibited
C)node;inhibited
D)node;activated

Question 39

Information can economically be represented in a hierarchical model when items lower in the hierarchy are assumed to have the properties of items higher in the hierarchy.This concept is called

A)subsumption.
B)inheritance.
C)class-inclusion statements.
D)superordinate feature acquisition.

Question 40

Categorizing concepts,according to this view,is based on one's own ideas or implicit theories regarding that particular concept.In other words,your own experiences are helpful in constructing an explanation for that concept and deciding between which features are essential and which are incidental.

A)exemplars
B)theory-based view
C)inheritance
D)core

Question 41

According to Michael Posner,__________ priming refers to priming in which we are primed by a meaningful context or meaningful information.

A)contextual
B)semantic
C)meaning-related
D)repetition

Question 42

According to Schank and Abelson (1977),a __________ is "a structure that describes appropriate sequences of events in a particular context [and] is made up of slots and requirements about what can fill the slots." It does not handle totally novel situations.

A)script
B)node
C)network
D)schema

Question 43

Timmy,a 4-year-old,has learned that to stay warm in the winter cold,one must wear lots of clothes.He learned this after several trials of going outside under clothed and coming into the house uncomfortably cold.This type of knowledge is referred to as __________ knowledge.

A)connectionist
B)simple non-associative
C)simple associative
D)priming

Question 44

__________ refers to the facilitation of information retrieval,as a result of prior stimulation or activation of related information (or even of the same information).

A)Production
B)Spreading activation
C)Priming
D)Conceptual dependency

Question 45

According to Michael Posner,__________ priming refers to priming in which a prior exposure to a word or other stimulus primes a subsequent retrieval of that information.

A)contextual
B)semantic
C)repetition
D)exposure

Question 46

Which of the following is not a type of non-declarative knowledge in Larry Squire's theory?

A)episodic knowledge
B)procedural knowledge
C)classical and operant conditioning
D)priming

Question 47

Sarah has come to associate the smell of freshly baked apple pie with her grandmother,such that the mere smell of pie reminds her of her grandmother instantaneously.This type of knowledge is referred to as __________ knowledge.

A)declarative
B)simple associative
C)simple non-associative
D)priming

Question 48

__________ processing refers to the means by which only one elementary information process is executed at any one time,and multiple processes are handled sequentially.

A)Parallel
B)Serial
C)Distributed
D)Monotonic

Question 49

Anderson's model of mental representation and information processing incorporates both declarative and procedural knowledge.Declarative is represented in a propositional network while procedural is represented in a production system.The name of this model is

A)parallel distributed processing (PDP).
B)hierarchical model.
C)dual-code theory.
D)ACT-R.

Question 50

When thinking about an issue,such that various associations seem to come to mind regarding that issue,we are experiencing __________ along the nodes that represent our knowledge of various aspects of the problem,and possibly,its solution.

A)conceptual dependency
B)spread of activation
C)a priming effect
D)serial processing

Question 51

Right outside of Mr.Jones's second-grade classroom there is a construction crew.When the construction began,Mr.Jones found that the children were easily distracted by the noise.Now that the construction has been going on for months,the children pay no attention to the noises.This type of knowledge,associated with no longer paying attention to outside noises,is referred to as

A)declarative.
B)simple associative.
C)simple non-associative (i.e. ,habituation).
D)priming.

Question 52

A(n)__________ refers to a condition-action ("if-then")sequence,to generation output of a procedure.

A)inferential manifestation
B)spreading activation process
C)production
D)converging operation

Question 53

If someone asks you to spell the word sight,you will probably spell it differently,depending on whether you have been talking about vision ("s-i-g-h-t")or about locations for an archaeological dig ("s-i-t-e").This bias reflects the __________ effect.

A)production
B)spreading activation
C)priming
D)conceptual dependency

Question 54

__________ refers to a model of information processing that integrates a network representation for declarative knowledge and a production-system representation for procedural knowledge.

A)The declarative-procedural frame approach
B)ACT (Adaptive control of thought)
C)Conceptual dependency
D)Artificial intelligence

Question 55

If your car is veering toward the left side of the road,then you should steer toward the right side of the road.The "if" clause includes a set of conditions that must be met in order to implement the then clause.This is an example of __________,which are used in some computer simulations.

A)semantic simulations
B)action rules
C)declarative procedures
D)production rules

Question 56

According to Anderson,temporal strings contain information about __________ information.

A)spatial
B)absolute
C)relative time
D)olfactory

Question 57

An example of a simple __________ for a pedestrian to cross the street at an intersection with a traffic light includes the person first having to test whether the light is red or green.If it is red,the person stops and again tests whether the light is still red.If it is green,the person starts moving.

A)production system
B)procedural loop
C)semantic cycle
D)action-execution system

Question 58

_____ refers to a specialized vocabulary that a particular group uses (e.g. ,physicians).Individuals not part of the group may find it difficult to understand the information.

A)Jargon
B)Word-superiority effect
C)Synthesis
D)Representational thought

Question 59

A(n)__________ refers to an ordered set of productions in which execution starts at the top of a list of productions,continues until a condition is satisfied,and then returns to the top of the list to start anew.

A)production system
B)procedural loop
C)semantic cycle
D)action-execution system

Question 60

Most non-declarative knowledge can be retrieved for use __________ declarative knowledge can be retrieved.

A)less quickly than
B)more quickly than
C)just as quickly as
D)Not clear based on current research.

Question 61

The __________ process refers to a process by which stimuli activate nodes within a network and activation causes connections between nodes to become active.

A)connected excitation
B)connected activation
C)spreading excitation
D)spreading activation

Question 62

In early artificial intelligence research,investigators believed that the ideal was to write programs that were

A)as domain-general as possible.
B)domain-specific.
C)in keeping with the latest brain research.
D)in keeping with the brain injury research.

Question 63

One of the most influential books in the field of cognitive science during the 1980s was __________'s The Modularity of Mind,which presented the argument for extreme domain-specificity.

A)James McClelland
B)David Rumelhart
C)Jerry Fodor
D)Herbert Simon

Question 64

According to Anderson (1980),while we are in the __________ stage for learning how to drive a standard-shift car,we must carefully practice following each rule for stepping on the clutch,gas,or brake pedal,while also trying to shift gears.

A)cognitive
B)associative
C)autonomous
D)affective

Question 65

__________ refers to a model of knowledge representation and information processing,which proposes that knowledge is represented within a network in which information is stored in the form of various patterns of connection strengths distributed across the brain.

A)The connection strength model
B)Parallel distributed processing
C)The knowledge patterns approach
D)Serial distributed processing

Question 66

In the parallel distributed processing model proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart,connections between units can possess varying degrees of __________ potential,even when the connections are currently inactive.

A)excitation but not inhibition
B)inhibition but not excitation
C)excitation or inhibition
D)rest

Question 67

A "connectionist" model is another way to refer to a(n)

A)elementary information process model.
B)test-operate-test-exit model.
C)production system.
D)parallel distributed processing model.

Question 68

__________ refers to the overall process by which we transform slow,explicit information about procedures ("knowing that")into speedy,implicit implementations of procedures ("knowing how").

A)Activation
B)Implicitization
C)Machination
D)Proceduralization

Question 69

Neurological findings and other cognitive research seem to indicate that human cognition primarily involves __________,in which multiple information processes are executed simultaneously.

A)parallel processing
B)serial processing
C)schematic production
D)multi-nodal activation

Question 70

In the brain,at any one given time,a given neuron may assume each of the following activities,except one.Identify the exception.

A)Inactive
B)Excitatory
C)Inhibitory
D)Dormant

Question 71

In the parallel distributed processing model proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart,knowledge is represented by

A)the specific neuron-like units connected.
B)the pattern of interconnections.
C)the location of the neuronal network.
D)the location of the nodal network.

Question 72

According to Anderson (1980),knowledge representation of procedural skills occurs in three of the following four stages.Identify the exception.

A)cognitive
B)associative
C)autonomous
D)affective

Question 73

In the parallel distributed processing model proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart,the more often a particular connection is activated,the

A)weaker the strength of the connection.
B)greater the strength of the connection.
C)fewer the number of neuron-like units necessary to activate.
D)greater the number of neuron-like units involved in the activation.

Question 74

According to __________,the amount of activation between a prime and a given target node is a function of the number of links connecting the prime and the target and the relative strength of each connection.

A)the links model
B)the compound-node model
C)the nodal-strength view
D)spreading activation theories

Question 75

According to Anderson (1980),while we are in the __________ stage for learning how to drive a standard-shift car,we have integrated all of the various rules (for stepping on the clutch,gas,or brake pedal,while also trying to shift gears)into a single,coordinated series of actions.

A)cognitive
B)associative
C)autonomous
D)affective

Question 76

According to Anderson (1980),while we are in the __________ stage for learning how to drive a standard-shift car,we must explicitly think about each rule for stepping on the clutch,gas,or brake pedal,while also trying to shift gears.

A)cognitive
B)associative
C)autonomous
D)affective

Question 77

The term modularity refers to the

A)particular mode of thought in which the brain functions.
B)degree to which information is able to be classified into modules for processing throughout large areas of the limbic system.
C)processing of information in the brain via separate and specialized "units."
D)specific regions of the brain that alter their modes of activity in order to process complicated pieces of information.

Question 78

According to the parallel distributed processing model proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart,whenever we use knowledge,we

A)change our representation of it.
B)always arrive at a more efficient way of storing the knowledge.
C)leave our representation of it unchanged.
D)risk forgetting it.

Question 79

When learning to drive a standard-shift car and progressing from having to think about stepping on the clutch pedal and so on,to no longer needing to think about what steps to take to shift gears,we are experiencing the process sometimes called

A)activation.
B)implicitization.
C)machination.
D)proceduralization.

Question 80

In the parallel distributed processing model proposed by McClelland and Rumelhart,the network comprises

A)concepts.
B)nodes.
C)propositions.
D)neuron-like units.