Deck 9: Single-Case Research Designs

Question 1

A woman sought treatment for her symptoms of depression and anxiety.The psychologist,after checking his references for the best treatment given her symptoms,began twice-a-week cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy.By the end of eight weeks,she reported that she was much better,and had only occasional symptoms of depression and anxiety,which she considered to be normal.The psychologist wrote a report describing the results of his study,stating that her improvement offers conclusive support for the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
Do you think the psychologist's conclusions are correct? Why or why not?

Answer 1

There are two important reasons to suspect the psychologist's conclusions.(1)It is difficult to draw firm cause-effect conclusions Another important factor that limits the ability to make causal inferences based on the case study is that observer bias and biases in data collection may be present.Because the psychologist served both as the therapist and the researcher,his observations may be biased by his dual roles.In addition,the observations of the client's improvement are based on her self-report,and she may be biased to report improvement (e.g.,to please the psychologist or to justify the twice-per-week sessions).

Question 2

Idiographic research,as represented by the case study method,has the potential to reveal

A) causal mechanisms underlying behavior.
B) contradictory effects in well-controlled treatment studies.
C) nuances and subtleties of individual behavior.
D) definitive evidence for the effectiveness of a particular treatment.

Answer 2

nuances and subtleties of individual behavior.

Question 3

Identify a methodological problem specific to the ABAB design and a methodological problem specific to the multiple-baseline designs.

Answer 3

A methodological problem specific to the ABAB design is a failure of behavior in the second baseline stage to reverse to the level of the first baseline stage.It is very difficult to interpret whether the intervention was responsible for the change in behavior when the intervention was administered.Possible methodological problems specific to the multiple-baselines designs occur when behavior changes before the intervention and when the treatment generalizes to other behaviors or situations.

Question 4

Case studies have been used successfully to study individuals with brain disorders and individuals with exceptional memory abilities.These studies illustrate the use of the case study method to

A) apply the nomothetic approach.
B) test a clinical innovation.
C) provide conclusive evidence for a particular theory.
D) study rare phenomena.

Question 5

The task confronting clinical psychologists can be described as trying to predict "what any one person will do." Actuarial predictions and group norms can be useful,but the clinician's task also illustrates the need for

A) idiographic research.
B) psychoanalytic research.
C) nomothetic research.
D) spiritual research.

Question 6

In the nomothetic approach to the study of psychology,researchers generally conduct

A) intensive studies of an individual to describe the way people behave in general.
B) intensive studies of an individual to describe the unique aspects of individuals.
C) studies of many individuals and use their average behavior to describe the unique aspects of individuals.
D) studies of many individuals and use their average behavior to describe how people behave in general.

Question 7

Researchers are often unable to control extraneous variables when they use the case study method.This poor degree of control makes it difficult to use the case study method to

A) draw cause-and-effect conclusions about behavior.
B) consider alternative theoretical explanations of behavior.
C) develop descriptions of behavior.
D) develop predictions of behavior.

Question 8

Suppose the following data were observed for an individual who sought treatment for kleptomania.Using a single-case experiment,the psychologist used "covert sensitization" to treat the stealing behavior across a number of different situations (e.g.,stealing at the grocery store,drug store,discount store).Covert sensitization was applied systematically to each situation.The psychologist concluded that the treatment was very effective for reducing kleptomania.
As shown in the following graphs,an initial baseline period was conducted for each of three situations.The session in which covert sensitization was implemented is indicated with each situation (session 3,6,or 9).The dependent variable is the number of shoplifted items. What is your conclusion about the effectiveness of treatment? Explain your answer.

Question 9

Identify two advantages and two disadvantages of the case study method.

Question 10

Describe an advantage and a disadvantage of single-case experimental designs relative to multiple-groups designs.

Question 11

Suppose the following data were observed for an individual who sought treatment for kleptomania.Using a single-case experiment,the psychologist used "covert sensitization" to treat the stealing behavior across a number of different situations (e.g.,stealing at the grocery store,drug store,discount store).Covert sensitization was applied systematically to each situation.The psychologist concluded that the treatment was very effective for reducing kleptomania.
As shown in the following graphs,an initial baseline period was conducted for each of three situations.The session in which covert sensitization was implemented is indicated with each situation (session 3,6,or 9).The dependent variable is the number of shoplifted items. What type of research design was used in this study? [Be specific.]

Question 12

Which of the following is an advantage of the case study method?

A) Case studies are a source of ideas and hypotheses about behavior.
B) Case studies are a source of definitive evidence in support of theoretical assumptions.
C) Case studies provide cause-and-effect inferences for clinical treatments.
D) Case studies complement the idiographic study of behavior.

Question 13

The relationship of the case study method to other research methods of investigation can best be described as

A) very similar to experimental approaches.
B) antagonistic to more controlled methods.
C) interrelated with and complementary to other methods.
D) most related to research methods for confirmatory studies.

Question 14

The most serious disadvantage of the case study method,because of internal validity issues,is the

A) possible problem of generalizing from a single individual.
B) limitation of information based on self-reports.
C) difficulty of making causal inferences regarding the effect of treatment.
D) possible problem of observer bias affecting the interpretation of the outcome.

Question 15

Describe the common features that are present in both ABAB and multiple-baseline experimental designs.

Question 16

What two methodological problems dealing with the measurement of baselines apply to all single-case experimental designs?

Question 17

A cognitive psychologist did an intensive descriptive study of a person who had suffered an unusual brain injury.Which of the following methods did the psychologist most likely use?

A) baseline method
B) case study method
C) idiogram method
D) unipolar method

Question 18

The major difficulty with the case study method as a basis for drawing cause-and-effect conclusions is that

A) coding of the results cannot be done reliably and validly.
B) the simultaneous use of several treatments and failure to control extraneous variables prevent causal inference.
C) excessive constraints on the external validity of the case study prevent causal inference.
D) biases of the researcher must dominate the interpretation of the results.

Question 19

The fundamental characteristic of case studies is

A) the high degree of scientific control.
B) they contribute important testimonial evidence.
C) they are nomothetic approaches to science.
D) they lack a high degree of scientific control.

Question 20

A woman sought treatment for her symptoms of depression and anxiety.The psychologist,after checking his references for the best treatment given her symptoms,began twice-a-week cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy.By the end of eight weeks,she reported that she was much better,and had only occasional symptoms of depression and anxiety,which she considered to be normal.The psychologist wrote a report describing the results of his study,stating that her improvement offers conclusive support for the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
What type of research did this psychologist conduct?

Question 21

Case studies sometimes provide evidence for the "success" of a particular treatment.People often find reports of these successful treatments highly persuasive.People are persuaded by testimonial evidence primarily because they fail to

A) see the personal relevance of the case study to their own situation.
B) consider reasons for why the treatment would not work for them.
C) check thoroughly into the qualifications of those who conducted the case study.
D) consider why the treatment would work for them.

Question 22

A serious problem of interpretation can arise in the ABAB design when

A) performance in the second baseline period does not reverse, that is, return to the level in the initial baseline period.
B) performance in the initial baseline period is too high or too low.
C) performance in the second baseline period is worse than it was in the initial baseline period.
D) performance improves to the same degree in both intervention periods.

Question 23

The application of single-case experimental designs to socially relevant problems has its origin in

A) the study of children who have been severely neglected.
B) neuropsychology and the examination of individuals with rare brain disorders.
C) behaviorism and the experimental analysis of behavior.
D) psychoanalytic theory and intensive psychoanalysis of individuals.

Question 24

Which of the following designs is used when the researcher focuses on the way behavior changes with the systematic introduction and withdrawal of the treatment?

A) successive treatment design
B) multiple baseline design
C) ABAB design
D) case study

Question 25

Problems of observer bias can arise in the context of a case study because

A) extraneous variables are often uncontrolled.
B) the nomothetic approach is especially prone to observer bias.
C) case studies typically involve unobtrusive observation.
D) the researcher is often both observer and participant.

Question 26

In a single-case experiment to treat a young girl's selective mutism (refusal to speak),treatment was applied at a restaurant,an office building,and when playing with peers.This represents

A) an ABABAB design.
B) a case study.
C) a multiple-baseline design across behaviors.
D) a multiple-baseline design across situations.

Question 27

In a multiple-baseline design,the target behavior should change

A) just before the onset of the treatment.
B) long before the onset of the treatment.
C) just after the onset of the treatment.
D) long after the onset of the treatment.

Question 28

The multiple baselines in multiple-baseline designs are usually established across each of the following dimensions except

A) one behavior for the same individual.
B) the same behavior for different individuals.
C) different situations for the same individual.
D) different behaviors for the same individual.

Question 29

If the treatment is responsible for changing behavior in a multiple-baseline design across individuals,then an effect in the behavioral record will be seen

A) at the same time for every individual.
B) immediately after the time when each individual's baseline stabilizes.
C) just before the application of the treatment in each individual.
D) immediately after the application of the treatment in each individual.

Question 30

Which of the following characteristics is present in a typical case study?

A) extraneous variables are controlled
B) several different treatments are often applied simultaneously
C) treatment variables are often varied systematically
D) all of these

Question 31

Single-case experiments differ from the case study method in that single-case experiments

A) rely more heavily on introspective reports by participants.
B) allow the simultaneous manipulation of several independent variables.
C) provide a more flexible alternative to the more highly controlled case study method.
D) systematically contrast conditions within an individual whose behavior is being continuously monitored.

Question 32

In the multiple-baseline design across individuals,the treatment is administered

A) many times to each individual.
B) successively to one individual at a time.
C) during the common baseline period for all individuals.
D) to all individuals in the study at the same time.

Question 33

An extensive case study of an individual's visual system reveals several important findings.The ability of the researcher to generalize these findings to other individuals can be described as

A) impossible-the findings cannot be generalized because a case study was used.
B) not limited at all because the visual system of all organisms is the same.
C) somewhat limited because people's visual systems are likely to vary somewhat.
D) very limited because people's visual systems vary so greatly.

Question 34

The problem of generalizing from a single individual arises when the case study method is used.This problem is likely to be most serious when the case has been selected from a population with

A) zero variability.
B) a low degree of variability.
C) a moderate degree of variability.
D) a high degree of variability.

Question 35

A researcher administers a treatment to four children in succession and monitors whether each child's behavior changes with the onset of the treatment.The researcher is using

A) an ABAB design.
B) a multiple-baseline design.
C) a case study.
D) a successive independent samples design.

Question 36

A clinical psychologist wants to test a treatment to reduce the self-injury behavior of an autistic child.She faces an ethical dilemma of needing to remove a potentially beneficial treatment to establish its effectiveness.In order to conduct an experiment that would allow causal inferences but also eliminate her ethical dilemma,the psychologist should conduct

A) a multiple-baselines design.
B) a case study.
C) an ABAB design.
D) a longitudinal design.

Question 37

Which of the following is not a source of bias in case studies?

A) testing clinical innovations
B) socially desirable responses in a client's report of his or her behaviors
C) distortions in the client's memory for past events
D) inaccuracies in the therapist's observations of the client's behavior

Question 38

The first stage of a single-case experiment is the baseline stage.The baseline stage provides information about

A) personality characteristics of the participant.
B) what behavior would be like if the treatment were not provided.
C) the effectiveness of the treatment in the experiment.
D) the likelihood that the participant will be receptive to the treatment.

Question 39

An effective treatment is identified in an ABAB (reversal)design when

A) behavior after the intervention is at the same level as the baseline in both the first and second AB stages.
B) behavior after the intervention is different from the baseline in the first AB stage, but not in the second AB stage.
C) behavior after the intervention is different from the baseline in the second AB stage, but not in the first AB stage.
D) behavior after the intervention is different from the baseline in both the first and the second AB stages.

Question 40

Which of the following statements is true regarding the relative advantages of single-case experimental designs as compared to multiple-group designs in clinical research?

A) Ethical problems arising from withholding a potentially beneficial treatment are less likely to arise in single-case designs than in multiple-group designs.
B) Single-case designs are especially useful when research is directed toward changing the behavior of large groups of individuals.
C) Multiple-group designs are more effective when an investigator in clinical research can gain access to only a small number of clients with a particular disorder.
D) Single-case designs are effective in identifying what treatments "in general" should be applied to modify behavior, but it is not possible to specify what effect the treatment will have on any specific individual.

Question 41

When the effect of an intervention in a single-case design is in the same direction as a baseline trend (either increasing or decreasing),the researcher

A) cannot make firm conclusions about the effectiveness of the treatment.
B) can be confident that the treatment did not work because of the baseline trend.
C) can be extra confident regarding the effectiveness of the treatment.
D) none of these

Question 42

Which of the following is not an acceptable approach for addressing the problem of excessive baseline variability in single-case designs?

A) "waiting it out" - that is, continue taking baseline measures until behavior stabilizes
B) making sure there are no errors in measurement
C) dropping the results for those subjects whose baselines show excessive variability
D) removing factors in the situation that might be producing the variability

Question 43

What do each of the multiple baselines in the multiple-baseline design represent?

A) individual case studies
B) inevitable sources of confounding
C) redundant sources of evidence
D) replications built into the design

Question 44

Single-case research designs have been criticized because

A) researchers often test complicated interactions among variables.
B) the external validity of the findings may be limited.
C) participants in the control condition do not receive treatment.
D) all of these

Question 45

A clinical psychologist seeks to increase the amount of time a child is able to work on a task.In order to make an interpretation about the effect of treatment using an ABAB design,the least problematic initial baseline period would show

A) an unstable pattern of behavior.
B) discontinuity from the beginning to the end of the baseline observations.
C) a decreasing trend in the amount of time the child spends working on the task.
D) an increasing trend in the amount of time the child spends working on the task.

Question 46

Problems in the interpretation of the results of a multiple-baselines design can arise when

A) changes in performance appear in one of the baselines after an experimental intervention.
B) changes in performance appear in one of the baselines before an experimental intervention.
C) changes in performance appear in the treatment stage simultaneously with an experimental intervention.
D) changes in performance appear in the treatment stage after an experimental intervention.

Question 47

Which of the following patterns represents an ideal baseline in a single-case experimental design?

A) line with zero slope (horizontal line)
B) line with a positive slope (diagonal from lower left to upper right)
C) line with a negative slope (diagonal from upper left to lower right)
D) jagged line with several peaks and valleys

Question 48

A frequent criticism of single-case designs is that the external validity of these designs is limited.Which of the following is not an argument against this criticism?

A) Single-case designs can be done with small groups of individuals rather than with a single individual.
B) Multiple-baseline designs across subjects can demonstrate the effectiveness of an intervention for several individuals.
C) Single-case designs allow for successive administrations of the same intervention to the same person.
D) Interventions in single-case designs are often ones that produce dramatic and sizable changes in behavior.

Question 49

When an intervention in a single-case design is expected to have an effect in the same direction as a baseline trend (either positive or negative),the researcher should

A) provide other evidence showing an effect of the treatment that flattens the baseline.
B) use additional means of evaluation such as asking for subjective evaluations from others familiar with the individual or comparing the individual's behavior to what is considered "normal."
C) provide other evidence showing an effect of the treatment that causes the baseline to change direction at least twice.
D) use graphical analysis to prove that the change from the baseline trend is a "marked" change in the behavioral record.

Question 50

A psychologist develops a behavioral treatment to decrease the frequency of a child's temper tantrums.In order to make a causal interpretation about the effectiveness of the treatment using an ABAB design,the most problematic initial baseline period would show

A) a stable pattern of temper tantrums.
B) a greater number of temper tantrums in the baseline period compared to the treatment period.
C) an increasing trend in the number of temper tantrums.
D) a decreasing trend in the number of temper tantrums.