Deck 9: The Quest for Meaning

Question 1

Which of the following groups in the U.S. is likely to have the highest level of church or synagogue attendance?

A) over 50
B) 30-49
C) 18-29
D) 10-18

Answer 1

A

Question 2

Which age group of adults in the United States shows the highest level of participation in formal religious activities, such as church attendance?

A) 20-year-olds
B) 35-year-olds
C) 50-year-olds
D) 65-year-olds

Answer 2

D

Question 3

Which level or levels of moral reasoning are most commonly found among adults in their 20s and 30s?

A) preconventional
B) conventional
C) principled
D) Conventional and principled are found equally often.

Answer 3

B

Question 4

In late old age, such as among those 75 and older, spirituality _______.

A) is at its peak
B) is lower than at any other age of adulthood
C) remains the same as it was at retirement age
D) increases

Question 5

Fifteen-year-old Jack, when asked about various moral dilemmas, says "Well, I think if my parents think something is right, it must be okay." In Kohlberg's category system, Jack is reasoning at the _______.

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 6

What effects of religiousness/spirituality are found in adults in U.S. studies?

A) lower cortisol levels
B) more forgiveness
C) greater frequency of prayer
D) all of the above

Question 7

Which of the following groups in the U.S. is likely to have the highest level of religious involvement?

A) African-American women
B) African-American men
C) white women
D) white men

Question 8

At a dinner party, you hear someone make the following statement: "Religion doesn't do any good for anyone. Religious people are no healthier, and die at the same ages as do nonreligious people." According to the evidence given in the text, how should you reply?

A) "You're right. The research evidence shows no relationship between religion and health."
B) "The research allows an even stronger statement: highly religious people are actually less healthy than are irreligious people."
C) "You're quite wrong. The research evidence shows that religious people are healthier and live longer."
D) "You can't make that statement. There is no research evidence one way or the other about the relationship between religious involvement and health."

Question 9

At a dinner party, you hear someone make the following statement: "Religion doesn't do any good for anyone. Religious people are no healthier, and die at the same ages as do nonreligious people." According to the evidence given in the text, how should you reply?

A) "You're right. The research evidence shows no relationship between religion and health."
B) "The research allows an even stronger statement: highly religious people are actually less healthy than are irreligious people."
C) "You're quite wrong. The research evidence shows that religious people are healthier and live longer."
D) "You can't make that statement. There is no research evidence one way or the other about the relationship between religious involvement and health."

Question 10

"There are lots of ways to think about God and to understand God. My own way satisfies me, but I accept the fact that there are other approaches that work for other people." Which of Fowler's stages of faith does this statement reflect?

A) synthetic-conventional
B) individuative-reflective
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 11

Miguel, who is 22 years old, thinks that breaking the law is always wrong, even if it is done in the name of civil disobedience-such as to try to change a law that discriminates against Hispanics. In Kohlberg's category system, Miguel is reasoning at the _______.

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 12

Which step in Underhill's description of mysticism corresponds to the usual endpoint in Fowler's theory?

A) awakening
B) purification
C) illumination
D) unity

Question 13

Teresa, who is in her early 30s, was arrested after participating in a sit-in as part of a protest march. She says, "I know what I did is against the law; 99 percent of the time I think a person should obey the law, because otherwise we'd have chaos. But sometimes laws are wrong, and I have to disobey them in order to try to change them." In Kohlberg's category system, Teresa is reasoning at the _______.

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 14

The most appropriate form of study to test Kohlberg's theory of the development of moral reasoning is _______.

A) longitudinal
B) cross-sectional
C) cross-lag
D) correlational

Question 15

Fifteen-year-old Jack, when asked about various moral dilemmas, says "Well, I think if my parents think something is right, it must be okay." In Kohlberg's category system, Jack is reasoning at the _______.

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 16

"I used to like to go to church. The pomp and circumstance really appealed to me, and I liked sitting there in the pew with my family. But now I really can't stand all those rituals. They seem so empty to me-just so much show to satisfy the ignorant. So I don't go anymore." What level of faith in Fowler's system is reflected in this statement?

A) conjunctive
B) universalizing
C) individuative
D) conventional

Question 17

In Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the conventional level is made up of 2 stages: the stage of "good-by or good-girl orientation" and the stage of _______.

A) social contract
B) social order maintaining orientation
C) individualism and instrumental purpose orientation
D) universal ethical principles

Question 18

Results from longitudinal studies of moral judgment show most clearly that _______.

A) moral development does not occur in the clear stages that Kohlberg describes
B) children and adolescents shift from one stage of moral reasoning to another, following the sequence described by Kohlberg
C) average scores on moral development reasoning move upward in stages, but individuals move up and down quite frequently
D) stage-like development of moral reasoning occurs only among children and adolescents growing up in western cultures

Question 19

Which age group of adults in the United States shows the highest level of participation in formal religious activities, such as church attendance?

A) 20-year-olds
B) 35-year-olds
C) 50-year-olds
D) 65-year-olds

Question 20

In Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the conventional level is made up of 2 stages: the stage of "good-boy or good-girl orientation" and the stage of _______.

A) social contract
B) social order maintaining orientation
C) individualism and instrumental purpose orientation
D) universal ethical principles

Question 21

Results from longitudinal studies of moral judgment show most clearly that _______.

A) moral development does not occur in the clear stages that Kohlberg describes
B) children and adolescents shift from one stage of moral reasoning to another, following the sequence described by Kohlberg
C) average scores on moral development reasoning move upward in stages, but individuals move up and down quite frequently
D) stage-like development of moral reasoning occurs only among children and adolescents growing up in Western cultures

Question 22

In Fowler's system of faith development, which of the following stages is the final stage, if one can reach it, the optimal form of faith in old age, when issues of integrity and meaning become still more dominant ?

A) intuitive-projective conjunctive
B) universalizing faith
C) synthetic-conventional
D) individuative-reflective

Question 23

Which of the following stages in Loevinger's theory of ego development most closely corresponds to the stage of synthetic-conventional faith in Fowler's model?

A) conformist
B) self-protective
C) autonomous
D) conscientious

Question 24

What stage in Kohlberg's system of moral development appears to correspond most closely to what Maslow calls "peak experiences"?

A) Stage 7
B) Stage 6
C) Stage 5
D) Stage 4

Question 25

The stages of moral development proposed by Kohlberg are hierarchical rather than merely sequential. What other theory of development involves hierarchical stages?

A) Loevinger's
B) Levinson's
C) Piaget's
D) Pearlin's

Question 26

Which stage in Fowler's theory of faith development most closely corresponds to the stage of social contract reasoning in Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

A) universalizing
B) conjunctive
C) synthetic conventional
D) individuative-reflective

Question 27

"Generally you should obey the law, because that is one of the conditions for living in society. But if a law is immoral, you may need to disobey it-but be prepared to take the consequences." What level of moral reasoning in Kohlberg's system is reflected in this statement?

A) hedonistic level
B) preconventional level
C) conventional level
D) principled level

Question 28

"I try to do things that I think my mom and dad will approve of. Their opinion really matters to me." In Kohlberg's category system, this is an example of ______ reasoning.

A) hedonistic
B) preconventional
C) conventional
D) principled

Question 29

"I grew up in the Baptist church, but when I went off to college, I really had to question all the ideas I'd been given as a child and as a teenager. For a while I called myself an atheist. But now I find myself drawn back to the Baptists. It just seems to me that the church offers answers to questions I've been asking myself." Which of Fowler's stages of faith does this statement most reflect?

A) synthetic-conventional
B) individuative-reflective
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 30

"I grew up in the Baptist church, and I'm still a Baptist. My ideas have really not changed at all. I find comfort by going to church; I find comfort in the Bible. It all seems pretty clear to me." Which of Fowler's stages of faith does this statement most reflect?

A) synthetic-conventional
B) individuative-reflective
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 31

Which of the following has been used as an argument against Kohlberg's theory of the development of moral reasoning?

A) Kohlberg is talking only about an ethic of fairness, and ignores other aspects of moral reasoning.
B) Cross-cultural data fails to support the hypothesized sequence of development.
C) Too few adults reason at the principled level to make it worth talking about.
D) When tested longitudinally, subjects move down as often as they move up in the sequence of reasoning.

Question 32

"I used to like to go to church. The pomp and circumstance really appealed to me, and I liked sitting there in the pew with my family. But now I really can't stand all those rituals. They seem so empty to me-just so much show to satisfy the ignorant. So I don't go anymore." What level of faith in Fowler's system is reflected in this statement?

A) conjunctive
B) universalizing
C) individuative
D) conventional

Question 33

Which level or levels of moral reasoning are most commonly found among adults in their 20s and 30s?

A) preconventional
B) conventional
C) principled
D) Conventional and principled are found equally often.

Question 34

"There are lots of ways to think about God and to understand God. My own way satisfies me, but I accept the fact that there are other approaches that work for other people." Which of Fowler's stages of faith does this statement reflect?

A) synthetic-conventional
B) individuative-reflective
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 35

The most appropriate form of study to test Kohlberg's theory of the development of moral reasoning is _______.

A) longitudinal
B) cross-sectional
C) cross-lag
D) correlational

Question 36

According to Fowler's stategs of faith development, what stage is, most typically, in its ascendance in adolescence or early adulthood ?

A) individuative-reflective
B) conventional
C) conjunctive
D) universalizing

Question 37

"I have recently found myself very much interested in the beliefs of others and have been reading about Eastern religions. My reading has not changed my own basic beliefs, but I find it fascinating and very broadening." What level of faith in Fowler's system is reflected in this statement?

A) conjunctive
B) universalizing
C) individuative
D) conventional

Question 38

According to Fowler's theory of faith development, _______.

A) an individual's faith typically gets stronger with increasing age over adulthood
B) an individual's faith typically gets weaker with increasing age
C) all individuals have some kind of faith, whether they participate in organized religion or not
D) most adults have no specific faith as such

Question 39

Which of the following is NOT one of Underhill's stages of mystical experience?

A) awakening
B) purification
C) abandonment
D) illumination

Question 40

The 3 levels of moral reasoning described by Kohlberg are _______.

A) preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
B) unconventional, conventional, and postconventional
C) preconventional, conformist, and individualistic
D) preconventional, conventional, and unconventional

Question 41

The metaphor of a "journey" dominates most thinking about spiritual development or development of meaning systems. Suggest and discuss one other metaphor that might be used.

Question 42

What stage in Loevinger's model of personality development most closely corresponds to Kohlberg's level of conventional reasoning?

A) conformist
B) self-protective
C) autonomous
D) conscientious

Question 43

Applying Kegan's polarity to Fowler's theory of faith development, which of Fowler's proposed stages most reflects the "union" end of the polarity?

A) synthetic-conventional and universalizing
B) individuative-reflective and conjunctive
C) synthetic-conventional and individuative-reflective
D) all of the adult stages

Question 44

The highest stage of faith Fowler proposes he calls _______.

A) conjunctive
B) universalizing
C) synthetic conventional
D) individuative-reflective

Question 45

Which particular life experience has been most often associated with reports of transitions from "conformist" to "individualistic" stages of faith or moral reasoning?

A) therapy
B) meditation or prayer
C) near-death experience
D) attending college

Question 46

Step 4 in Underhill's stages of mystical experiences involves a fuller turn inward called _____. However, ultimate union requires the process of _____.

A) dark night of the soul; abandonment
B) alienation; abandonment
C) disassociation; consolidation
D) alienation; consolidation

Question 47

Applying Kegan's polarity to Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which levels might be thought to reflect the "separateness" end of the polarity?

A) preconventional and conventional
B) preconventional and principled
C) conventional and principled
D) principled and Stage 7

Question 48

Kegan proposes that development is governed by the existence of a basic polarity of motives or needs, between _______.

A) sexual versus aggressive motives
B) love versus hate
C) connection versus independence
D) mundane versus exalted

Question 49

Transition from an integrated to a self-transcendent stage usually involves _______.

A) therapy
B) meditation
C) reading about other faiths
D) workshops

Question 50

Suppose you were interested in testing the basic hypotheses in Fowler's theory of faith development. Briefly describe a study you could do that would provide such a test, and indicate just how the results should come out if Fowler is correct.

Question 51

Briefly describe the effects of religiosity on life expectancy.

Question 52

List and describe the three levels of Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Include a sample reasoning statement for each.

Question 53

Which of Fowler's stages of faith is most parallel to the level of belongingness and love needs in Maslow's theory?

A) universalizing
B) synthetic-conventional
C) conjunctive
D) individuative

Question 54

Briefly describe the basic polarity Kegan proposes, and discuss how that concept may be useful as a synthesizing concept in tying together theories of both personality development and the growth of meaning.

Question 55

List at least five different life experiences that might trigger a transition from one stage of moral or faith development to another.

Question 56

Describe Fowler's theory of faith development.

Question 57

Which of the following groups in the U.S. is likely to have the lowest level of religious involvement?

A) African-American women
B) African-American men
C) white women
D) white men

Question 58

Briefly describe the difference between Stage 5 and Stage 6 in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning.

Question 59

Which step in Underhill's description of mysticism corresponds to the usual endpoint in Fowler's theory?

A) awakening
B) purification
C) illumination
D) unity

Question 60

Describe the stages of mystical experience as outlined by Underhill. How can these stages be linked to theories of moral reasoning or faith development?

Question 61

Gary Reker finds that older adults in his cross-sectional study place more emphasis on "collectivism" and on "self-transcendent" meaning.
a. How do these findings fit with the possible shared changes in personality in later adulthood discussed in the text?
b. How could you account for Reker's findings based on cohort differences?

Question 62

How might you design an experiment to determine whether older people are more spiritual because of their age or because of the adversity they have faced? What do you hypothesize about the results?

Question 63

What is it about attending college that seems to be influential in triggering a shift to an individualistic mode of reasoning or meaning? Is (or was) your own college experience like this?

Question 64

Read the following moral dilemma, how might an adult make a moral decision that reflects the post conventional level (or principled) of reasoning?

Question 65

A criticism that is often leveled against Loevinger, Kohlberg, and Fowler is that the techniques they use to measure stage development are heavily verbal, so that better educated or more verbal adults are likely to score higher on the scales. How could you reply to this criticism if you were one of these theorists? What sort of evidence would you have to provide to counter such a criticism?

Question 66

Briefly describe Carol Gilligan's central argument against Kohlberg's model of moral development. How do you evaluate her argument?

Question 67

What explanations could you suggest for women attending religious services more frequently than men? How does this fit with other gender differences you have studied in this book?

Question 68

Compare and contrast two fictitious individuals, one in the general stage of individuality and one in the general stage of integration, using two of the following theories: Loevinger's, Fowler's, Maslow's, and/or Kohlberg's. Provide detail about moral reasoning, personality development, and applied examples of the individuals' choices and behaviors.