Deck 10: Cognitive Foundations of Personality

Question 1

According to the textbook, the opposite of having an internal locus of control is

A) having an external locus of control.
B) a feeling of helplessness.
C) angst.
D) anhedonia.

Answer 1

a feeling of helplessness.

Question 2

John Weisz and colleagues suggested that people with an internal locus of controls can exercise __________ and attempt to make themselves feel better or less distressed by changing circumstances.

A) local control
B) primary control
C) secondary control
D) self control

Answer 2

primary control

Question 3

People vary in the extent to which they believe that an outcome is influence by their behavior. People who believe that they can have a significant influence of what happens to them are said to have a(n) ____________ locus of control.

A) integrated
B) internal
C) self
D) external

Answer 3

internal

Question 4

Individualistic cultures like the United States and some European countries tend to be so internal that their people are vulnerable to

A) giving up control over situations.
B) an illusion of control.
C) controlling others who don't share their beliefs.
D) seeing no need for human rights laws.

Question 5

People who are defined as field-independent tend to

A) have trouble cooperating in games.
B) rely on their own physical sensations.
C) see the big picture rather than details.
D) to be easily distracted by surrounding details.

Question 6

All of the following are true of the relationship between locus of control and work behavior

A) Internals show greater career decision-making skills.
B) Externals experience more job stress and burnout.
C) Internals are more satisfied with pay and promotions.
D) Entrepreneurs are more likely to be internals and are more successful at the businesses they start.

Question 7

The termed coined by Overmier and Seligman to describe the experience of dogs or humans exposed to an aversive situation over which they had no control was

A) depression.
B) amotivational.
C) anxious.
D) learned helplessness.

Question 8

_______________ cultures in East Asia, tend to believe in supernatural forces, fate, and even predetermined destiny due to the extend to which they share an external locus of control.

A) Superstitious
B) Buddhist
C) Communist
D) Collectivistic

Question 9

Weisz and colleagues suggested that people with an internal locus of control could choose to fit into, accommodate, or accept a situation in order to feel less distressed. In other words they could exercise __________________.

A) accommodation control
B) primary control
C) secondary control
D) self flexibility

Question 10

Psychologist Julian Rotter was the first modern psychologist to define the concept of ______________ as people's beliefs about the control of reinforcement and outcomes in their lives.

A) ego ideal
B) personal efficacy
C) reinforcement schema
D) locus of control

Question 11

For Rotter, et al, an individual who has not generally had their actions rewarded will come to develop what they define as a(n) _________ locus of control.

A) external
B) internal
C) passive
D) depressed

Question 12

All of the following have been found about individual who score high on tests of internal locus of control

A) Their scores on tests of internal locus of control at age 10 correlate positively with educational attainment in adulthood.
B) They are better at planning and working towards long-term goals.
C) They are more likely to support the death penalty.
D) They are less able to delay gratification due to their enthusiasm.

Question 13

Julian Rotter did his research in the United States in the 1960s. All of the following are documented changes in the American population from then until now

A) Americans have more opportunity for control over their environment.
B) Americans are more litigious now than 50 years ago.
C) There is now an increased sense of external locus of control.
D) The divorce rate is higher now than then.

Question 14

In one study, prisoners who were found to have an internal locus of control retained

A) less information about the conditions of their parole; they simply trusted that it would happen.
B) more information about the conditions of their parole, as they felt they could have some influence over the process.
C) less information about their trial and incarceration as they were found to have lower IQs than prisoners with external locus of control.
D) more information about their trial and incarceration as they were found to have higher IQs than prisoners with external locus of control.

Question 15

Some psychologists have identified individual differences between people in the way they perceive and think about the world. Some people are more dependent on visual cues and are more sensitive to the context. They are categorized as _____________ and tend to see the big picture rather than details.

A) dependent
B) field-dependent
C) field-independent
D) gestalt focused

Question 16

Rotter found evidence that ____________ are more likely to believe in fate, astrology, and chance events.

A) neurotics
B) internals
C) externals
D) narcissists

Question 17

Locus of control leads to differences in how individuals interact with others. All of the following have been found EXEPT

A) Internals hold more campus positions of leadership.
B) Externals are less likely to opt for positions of power.
C) Internals are more sensitive to the social demands of a situation.
D) Externals hold fewer positions of leadership on campus.

Question 18

In almost any situation, such as a school or long-term care facility, the way to avoid learned helplessness in the children or residents is to allow them

A) control, especially over potentially aversive situations.
B) plenty of positive feedback.
C) carefully controlled activities that avoid danger and threat.
D) There is no way to avoid learned helplessness in institutions.

Question 19

An unexpected observation from Overmier & Seligman's early experiments with dogs was that

A) they could learn complex escape strategies.
B) dogs were capable of experiencing depression.
C) they had expectations of future payoffs.
D) dogs were so much less intelligent than cats.

Question 20

Many studies have found a positive correlation between a(n) _________ locus of control and positive outcomes in work, health, and relationships.

A) external
B) internal
C) balanced
D) healthy

Question 21

In a six month study of elders living in Philadelphia

A) those with an optimistic explanatory style showed fewer symptoms of depression.
B) those with a pessimistic explanatory style showed fewer symptoms of depression if a negative event occurred in the six month period.
C) those with an optimistic explanatory style showed fewer symptoms of depression if a negative event occurred in the six month period.
D) optimists and pessimists displayed an equal number of symptoms of depression if a negative event occurred in the six month period

Question 22

The textbook lists several characteristics of an optimistic explanatory style. All of the following are mentioned as assumptions about negative events

A) They are unlikely to happen again.
B) They are not the individual's fault.
C) They are the result of fate, not personal actions.
D) They are limited to just one aspect of one's life.

Question 23

Hiroto's research with humans suggests that all of the following can influence learned helplessness

A) their cultural beliefs about fate, Karma, or destiny.
B) their beliefs about control.
C) their expectations about a specific task.
D) past experiences with uncontrollable outcomes.

Question 24

In Seligman and Maier's 1967 experiment with dogs they used three conditions. Each of the following is a brief description of one of those conditions

A) Escapable Shock followed by Inescapable Shock.
B) Escapable Shock.
C) Inescapable Shock.
D) Experimental Control

Question 25

One of the most consistent findings in the literature is that a pessimistic explanatory style is a risk factor for

A) depression.
B) social phobia.
C) schizophrenia.
D) Munchhausen's Syndrome.

Question 26

There are a number of instruments used to measure explanatory style. The most extensively used questionnaire is the

A) Minnesota Attributional Questionnaire.
B) Explanatory Style Instrument.
C) Attributional Style Questionnaire.
D) Thematic Attributional Questionnaire.

Question 27

Abramson suggested a theoretical model in which helplessness in the face of a negative event combined with the belief that the helplessness will continue into the future causes

A) schizophrenia.
B) agoraphobia.
C) depression.
D) anhedonia.

Question 28

There is evidence of cultural differences in explanatory style. In one study, which group of students was found to make the most pessimistic statements?

A) Mainland Chinese
B) Taiwanese
C) Chinese American
D) Caucasian American

Question 29

In a field study involving the residents of a senior care facility, all of the following were findings

A) 93% of the responsibility group showed improvement in eating, sleeping, and mood.
B) The responsibility group showed improvements in a number of variables, but a slightly increased death rate.
C) 71% of the control group became more debilitated during the test period.
D) The death rate of the control group was slightly higher during the test period than the average death rate of the facility just prior to the study.

Question 30

Seligman and Maier used a(n) _____________ design to test whether the controllability of the shock, rather than the shock itself, caused the helplessness.

A) integrated
B) triadic
C) double-blind
D) controlled

Question 31

The textbook presents research results that indicated all of the following

A) College students with a pessimistic explanatory style performed worse in their first year in college than those with an optimistic style.
B) Students with optimistic explanatory style show greater motivation and persist longer in the face of adversity.
C) Students with an optimistic explanatory style the summer before law school achieved a higher GPA and greater success working on their school's law journal that those with a pessimistic style.
D) Students with a pessimistic explanatory style tend to give up after academic frustrations.

Question 32

Seligman and his colleagues devised the Penn Resiliency Program (PRP). This program is used as a research tool and is designed for college students to

A) learn about the benefits of an optimistic explanatory style and the dangers of a pessimistic style
B) reverse their explanatory style from pessimistic to optimistic or from optimistic to pessimistic.
C) change their optimistic explanatory style into a more pessimistic one
D) change their pessimistic explanatory style into a more optimistic one.

Question 33

Seligman suggested that after many experiences during the course of a lifetime, individuals develop habitual ways of explaining both the bad and good things that happen in their life. He called this their

A) explanatory style.
B) habitual schema.
C) mental groove.
D) cognitive style.

Question 34

The textbook reports in some detail a quasi-experiment or field study of nursing home residents in Connecticut. The independent or manipulated variable in this experiment was

A) their scores on a pessimism scale.
B) eating, sleeping, and mood scores.
C) the floor on which they lived.
D) the level of responsibility they were given.

Question 35

It is clearly unethical to experimentally put people into traumatic situations. Even temporarily telling a group of subjects that their families had been killed, even though they had not, would be highly unethical and would never be approved by a research committee. However, social scientists can study groups of people who have had traumatic events happen even though the researchers now have less control over the situation. This type of research is described as

A) correlational.
B) experimental.
C) quasi-experimental.
D) observational.

Question 36

In the field study of nursing home residents, the results suggest that

A) added responsibility for older citizens adds to their stress level and somewhat reduces or hinders health.
B) added nutrition and exercise increases the level of optimism and sense of responsibility enjoyed by senior citizens.
C) added responsibility improves eating, sleeping, and mood in residents.
D) responsibility proved to be a variable with no long-term effects on residents.

Question 37

According to the textbook, the flip side of helplessness for humans is

A) assertiveness.
B) efficacy.
C) personal control.
D) mania.

Question 38

Seligman's work led to the conclusion that helplessness first causes anxiety, then, after continued exposure, it causes

A) anxiety disorders.
B) depression.
C) brain damage.
D) lowered intelligence.

Question 39

Seligman and Maier's theoretical explanation for the inability of the dogs in their Inescapable Shock condition to learn a new escape route was that they

A) had learned in the training phase that there was nothing they could do to avoid shocks.
B) had suffered brain damage from the shocks during the training phase.
C) were depressed from the training phase, which made them amotivational.
D) had learned that escape also resulted in shock so they were left with no viable behavior to avoid shock.

Question 40

In a study looking at the forces that cause differences in explanatory style, which type of family developed the greatest tendency to view events pessimistically?

A) Families emphasizing submissiveness
B) Families emphasizing independence
C) Families that modeled pessimism
D) Families that used predominantly punishment for discipline

Question 41

In designing a program to reduce pessimistic thinking among inner city children, you might include all of the following

A) Comic books that model logical arguments against negative thoughts in the face of difficulty.
B) Group discussions about how futile it is to try to change one's way of thinking and about learning to accept thoughts as they role through the mind.
C) Videos that model children choosing thoughts that are more optimistic in nature.
D) Role-playing games in which children consider the power of beliefs to alter how they feel.

Question 42

Individualistic cultures tend to be so internal that they are vulnerable to a(n) ________ of control.

Question 43

Weisz and colleagues have suggested that there are two ways of taking control. One way is for people to exercise ___________ control in which they attempt to make themselves feel better or less distressed by changing circumstances.

Question 44

Julian Rotter has defined __________ of control as people's beliefs about the control of reinforcements and outcomes in their lives.

Question 45

Giving up on goals, distancing, denying, abusing substance, etc., is known as _________ coping.

A) problematic
B) neurotic
C) emotion-focused
D) avoidant

Question 46

The general expectation that good things will happen in the future is labeled as

A) dispositional optimism.
B) genetic optimism.
C) the Pollyanna Syndrome.
D) positively biased expectations.

Question 47

Seligman and Maier did research with dogs in which they found evidence for learned ___________ in dogs for which there was no escape from an aversive stimulus (shock).

Question 48

According to the textbook, the flip side of helplessness, especially for humans, is personal ____.

Question 49

Dispositional optimism is positively correlated with all of the following

A) life satisfaction
B) good morale.
C) problem-focused coping.
D) academic achievement

Question 50

According to Seligman, helplessness first causes anxiety, then continued exposure causes _____.

Question 51

The attempt to reduce or manage negative emotions through such things as putting a positive spin on events, turning to religion, or seeking comfort from friends is called ________ coping.

A) avoidant
B) problem-focused
C) emotion-focused
D) pessimistic

Question 52

All of the following are results from a study of cultural differences between Asians and Americans

A) Self-identified Asian American College students showed similar amounts of dispositional optimism as White Americans.
B) Self-identified Asian American College students showed greater pessimism than White Americans.
C) Pessimism in White American College students was not associated with more depressive symptoms.
D) Pessimism in Asian American College students was not associated with more depressive symptoms.

Question 53

People who believe they have some control over what happens to them (internal locus of control) are referred to as ___________.

Question 54

The _________ is a mechanism that is likely affected by optimism in its impact on health.

A) reward system
B) hypothalamus
C) immune system
D) pineal cortex

Question 55

People work to solve problems or do something concrete to change the cause of stress in ______________ coping.

A) problem-focused
B) constructive
C) emotion-focused
D) avoidant

Question 56

Abramson suggested that people could feel helpless without feeling _________ if they anticipate that circumstances might be different in the future.

Question 57

Research suggests that contemporary college students have a more __________ locus of control than similar students from the 1960s.

Question 58

A successful program for teaching children to think more optimistically was based on the ABC model of Albert Ellis. A stands for adversity, B stands for belief, C stands for consequences, but the program for children added a D that stands for

A) Disengage from pessimism.
B) Drop the negative thinking.
C) Discharge the negative energy.
D) Dispute the negative thoughts.

Question 59

When compared to optimists, pessimists used more

A) problem-focused coping.
B) revising of goals.
C) emotion-focused coping.
D) action-based problem solving.

Question 60

You have been asked to consult in the program design of a new senior care facility. Based on your reading into the explanatory style literature, you would most likely recommend a program that

A) is very clear and carefully designed by your team to provide a daily balance of cognitive stimulation and exercise.
B) has a built-in behavior modification program that provides tangible rewards for participation in activities.
C) relieves the residents from the day-to-day hassle of making decisions about activities, food, etc.
D) puts a great deal of the day-to-day decision making into the hands of the residents.

Question 61

A technique for measuring explanatory style is the content analysis of verbatim explanations of events, which is called the _________ technique.

Question 62

The Penn Resiliency Program added a "D" to the ABC model of Albert Ellis. The "D" stands for learning to __________ automatic negative thoughts.

Question 63

Pessimists tend to show more _____-focused coping, in which they attempt to reduce or manage negative emotions and distress through turning to religion, denying, etc.

Question 64

One of the most consistent findings is that a(n) ____________ explanatory style is a risk factor for depression in both children and adults.

Question 65

In cross-cultural studies, European Americans were more likely to show a ____________ bias, attributing good events to themselves and negative events to external factors, than were Chinese Americans or .

Question 66

Briefly describe the difference between field-dependent and field-independent people.

Question 67

According to some theorists, people who view negative events as their own fault (internal), likely to happen again (stable), and undermining other aspects of their lives (global) are at risk for depression and are exhibiting a(n) _____________ explanatory style.

Question 68

In ___________-focused coping, people work to solve their problems or do something concrete to change the source of their stress.

Question 69

Summarize research findings that attempt to correlate locus of control and achievement, work, and health.

Question 70

The most extensively used measure of explanatory style is the ____________ Style Questionnaire.

Question 71

Discuss the relationship between locus of control and social behavior as summarized in the textbook.

Question 72

____________ optimism is a general expectation that good things will happen in the future.

Question 73

According to some theorists, after a lifetime of experiences and learning, people develop habitual ways of explaining both the bad and good things that happen to them in life called a(n) __________ style.

Question 74

Briefly describe the structure and function of the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale developed by Rotter.

Question 75

The Penn __________ Program is based on the ABC model of Albert Ellis and the cognitive behavioral therapy of Aaron Beck.

Question 76

According to research by Zullow, in 9 out of 10 of the U.S. presidential elections between 1948 and 1984, the candidate who gave the more __________ nomination acceptance speech lost the election.

Question 77

Researchers in personality often use a type of field study in which they are not able to randomly assign subjects to particular conditions, but use groups as they find them in real life. These types of studies are called _______________.

Question 78

Some research findings suggest that a pessimistic explanatory style may be more adaptive in certain situations. Elders living in Philadelphia with a(n) _______ explanatory style and who experienced a negative event such as the death of spouse showed the most amount of depression during the test period.

Question 79

Giving up on goals, denying, and abusing substances are all examples of ________ coping.

Question 80

Julian Rotter defined the concept of locus of control. Define this concept and describe the difference between the two types that he identified.