Deck 2: Theories of Development

Question 1

Evolutionary theory is based on the idea that thoughts and expectations affect actions.

Answer 1

False

Question 2

A father utilizes the zone of proximal development when he helps his daughter learn how to ride a bike by herself through adjusting the level of support he provides to her.

Answer 2

True

Question 3

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development apply specifically to the childhood years.

Answer 3

False

Question 4

According to Freud, the first stage of psychosexual development during infancy is the anal stage.

Question 5

An explanation of facts and observations defined by a set of concepts and ideas that organize phenomena is called a "_____."

A) hypothesis
B) theory
C) conclusion
D) development

Question 6

Modern mating patterns have been explained from an evolutionary perspective.

Question 7

According to John Watson, psychologists should only study observable behavior.

Question 8

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development is the preoperational stage.

Question 9

In operant conditioning, an individual follows a modeled behavior.

Question 10

In classical conditioning, a meaningful stimulus becomes linked to a neutral stimulus.

Question 11

Sociocultural theory states that human development results from the dynamic interaction between a person's genes and his or her unconscious drives.

Question 12

The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is inner drives, motives, and unconscious needs.

Question 13

Developmentalists who subscribe to the eclectic perspective select what they consider to be the best aspects of each theory to explain development.

Question 14

A developmental theory is a systematic statement of general principles that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older.

Question 15

Theories undermine the development of hypotheses.

Question 16

Cognitive theory utilizes modeling.

Question 17

A norm is an average or usual event or experience.

Question 18

Social learning theory compares a human's thinking processes to a computer's analysis of data.

Question 19

According to evolutionary theory, every species has two long-standing, biologically based drives: survival and reproduction.

Question 20

Newer theories on development tend to be multicultural and multidisciplinary.

Question 21

Theories can do all the following EXCEPT _____.

A) produce hypotheses
B) solve developmental problems
C) generate discoveries
D) offer practical guidance

Question 22

Each stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of development is characterized by a conflict associated with different parts of the body. According to Freud, how people experience and resolve each conflict influences personality _____.

A) throughout life, because early years provide the foundation of adult behavior
B) throughout life, only if some of the conflicts are successfully resolved
C) only in childhood, with new conflicts emerging later that shape adult identity
D) at a particular stage of development, also called a sensitive period

Question 23

Psychoanalytic theory originated with _____.

A) Piaget
B) Freud
C) Watson
D) Erikson

Question 24

_____ emphasizes unconscious drives and early experiences with respect to development, whereas _____ emphasizes learning by understanding how a person thinks.

A) Psychoanalytic theory; behaviorism
B) Psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory
C) Behaviorism; psychoanalytic theory
D) Cognitive theory; psychoanalytic theory

Question 25

_____ emphasizes unconscious drives and early experiences with respect to development, whereas _____ emphasizes learning by association, reinforcement, or observation with respect to development.

A) Psychoanalytic theory; behaviorism
B) Psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory
C) Behaviorism; psychoanalytic theory
D) Cognitive theory; psychoanalytic theory

Question 26

Psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, and cognitive theory are considered "grand" because they are _____.

A) comprehensive, enduring, and widely applied
B) comprehensive, well developed, and universally correct
C) enduring, widely applied, and universally correct
D) comprehensive, widely applied, and unchallenged

Question 27

Freud argued that the goal of a healthy life is to _____.

A) connect spiritually with another person
B) follow moral codes set by society
C) avoid conflict and promote social harmony
D) love and to work

Question 28

According to Freud's psychosexual theory, the _____ stage centers around breastfeeding and weaning.

A) oral
B) anal
C) phallic
D) genital

Question 29

In the United States, the legal age for drinking alcohol is 21 years. Thus, age 21 represents a(n) _____.

A) median
B) norm
C) hypothesis
D) estimate

Question 30

The term norm communicates _____.

A) a common behavior that results from biological or social pressure
B) the presence and severity of atypical behavior
C) that some behaviors are more desirable than others
D) that individual differences in behavior may result from cognitive or social deficits

Question 31

In the first half of the twentieth century, which two opposing theories dominated the discipline of psychology?

A) humanism and cognitive theory
B) behaviorism and sociocultural theory
C) psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism
D) cognitive theory and sociocultural theory

Question 32

In class, Sam learned that some theorists link happiness to productivity. From this, he developed the idea that happy employees in a factory will produce more products per hour. In this example, Sam's theory led him to _____.

A) produce a hypothesis
B) solve a developmental problem
C) generate a discovery
D) gain practical guidance

Question 33

A _____ is an average or usual event or experience.

A) norm
B) theory
C) hypothesis
D) median

Question 34

Lilly's 12-year-old son used to get out of bed easily and early on school days, but lately he has been hard to wake. While reading a parenting book, Lilly came across the theory of "delayed phase of preference," which states that sleep patterns shift when young people start to go through puberty. In this example, a theory helped Lilly _____.

A) design an experiment
B) change her own behavior
C) generate a discovery
D) gain practical guidance

Question 35

A systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change over time is called a "_____."

A) hypothesis
B) developmental theory
C) conclusion
D) stage

Question 36

Which of the following statements about norms is correct?

A) A norm always represents a usual practice within a culture.
B) Norms tend to highlight deficits in development rather than strengths.
C) The terms "theories," "norms," and "facts" are used interchangeably.
D) Sometimes a norm in an expected behavior, even if it is not the usual practice.

Question 37

Which is the correct order of the stages of Freud's psychosexual theory, beginning with infancy and ending with adolescence?

A) oral, anal, genital, phallic, latency
B) anal, oral, phallic, genital, latency
C) oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
D) latency, phallic, oral, anal, genital

Question 38

_____ is a theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background.

A) Humanism
B) Behaviorism
C) Information processing
D) Ecology

Question 39

Hannah theorized that sleep helps people behave in safer ways. She tested her theory by conducting an experiment. She manipulated the amount of sleep participants got and then tested their driving ability. Hannah learned that participants who got more sleep were safer drivers. In this example, Hannah's theory led her to _____.

A) replicate research
B) solve a developmental problem
C) generate a discovery
D) change the behavior of many people

Question 40

The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is _____.

A) observable behaviors
B) inner drives, motives, and unconscious needs
C) an individual's ideas and beliefs
D) self-awareness and willingness to change

Question 41

Theorists who promote classical conditioning believe that learned behavior is the result of _____, whereas theorists who promote operant conditioning believe that learned behavior is the result of _____.

A) the association between one stimulus and another; past reinforcement
B) past reinforcement; the association between one stimulus and another
C) observing another person's actions; past reinforcement
D) the association between one stimulus and another; observing another person's actions

Question 42

Which psychoanalytic theorist identified unique stages of development from birth through late adulthood?

A) Freud
B) Piaget
C) Skinner
D) Erikson

Question 43

The type of conditioning that Skinner identified is referred to as "_____ conditioning."

A) classical
B) observational
C) operant
D) cognitive

Question 44

A person observes the actions of others and copies them. Social learning theorists would call this an example of "_____."

A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) modeling
D) cognition

Question 45

Pavlov's experiments with dogs that salivated when they heard a specific noise without the presence of food provide an example of _____.

A) classical conditioning
B) observational learning
C) operant conditioning
D) reinforcement

Question 46

The boss praises his hourly employees for their good work. The boss hopes that the praise encourages the employees to continue to work hard. In this example, the reinforcement is _____.

A) the boss's praise
B) worker productivity
C) the boss
D) an hourly wage

Question 47

Although many of the theorists who follow Freud's psychoanalytic theory have modified and expanded his ideas, they agree on the importance of _____.

A) early childhood experiences and psychosexual conflicts
B) psychosexual conflicts and the unconscious
C) early childhood experiences and the unconscious
D) psychosexual conflicts and stages of psychosexual development

Question 48

Social learning theory indicates that learning occurs from _____.

A) the association between one stimulus and another
B) past reinforcement
C) observing and imitating others
D) responding to a particular stimulus

Question 49

The process by which a response becomes linked to a particular stimulus is called "_____."

A) psychoanalysis
B) cognition
C) observational learning
D) conditioning

Question 50

Within Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, each of the developmental stages is characterized by a particular challenge, or a _____.

A) conflict negotiation
B) developmental conflict
C) developmental crisis
D) resolution

Question 51

A balloon popped and made Bobby cry. It happened again when he was at a friend's birthday party. Now when Bobby sees a balloon, he starts to cry. According to the behaviorist perspective, Bobby cries in response to the balloon because of _____.

A) operant conditioning
B) observational learning
C) classical conditioning
D) modeling

Question 52

Unlike Freud, Erikson _____.

A) only described development in childhood
B) believed that adult problems reflect childhood conflicts
C) emphasized family and culture in his stages
D) leaned toward the behaviorist perspective

Question 53

Behaviorism has also been referred to as "_____ theory."

A) conditioning
B) learning
C) modeling
D) operant

Question 54

Any consequence that follows a behavior and makes a person likely to repeat that behavior is called a(n) "_____.

A) punishment"
B) condition
C) reinforcement
D) observation

Question 55

Operant conditioning is also referred to as "_____ conditioning."

A) classical
B) instrumental
C) observational
D) reinforcement

Question 56

Behaviorists believe that psychologists should focus on _____.

A) observable behaviors
B) inner drives and motives
C) a person's ideas and beliefs
D) a person's sexual conflict

Question 57

When a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, gradually responding to the neutral stimulus in the same way as to the meaningful one, he or she is exhibiting _____.

A) classical conditioning
B) observational learning
C) operant conditioning
D) modeling

Question 58

Observational learning is also called "_____."

A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) modeling
D) cognition

Question 59

Which of Erikson's stages did he regard as particularly crucial for later development?

A) initiative versus guilt
B) intimacy versus isolation
C) trust versus mistrust
D) autonomy versus shame and doubt

Question 60

Dominique, age 14, dislikes school. Her parents were recently informed that Dominique has missed 12 days of school this quarter and has left school early on at least four occasions. Dominique's father has decided to drop his daughter off every morning and pick her up every afternoon to make sure she is attending school. Dominique is now attending school, but she has gotten into serious trouble on multiple occasions, leading to a five-day out-of-school suspension. Since Dominique dislikes school and prefers to skip rather than attend, the out-of-school suspension represents a _____.

A) reinforcement
B) punishment
C) conditioner
D) norm

Question 61

A state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas is called "_____."

A) social learning
B) conflict resolution
C) cognitive equilibrium
D) information processing

Question 62

_____ was a cognitive theorist.

A) Freud
B) Watson
C) Piaget
D) Vygotsky

Question 63

_____ is a perspective that compares a human's thinking processes, by analogy, to a computer's analysis of data.

A) Social learning theory
B) Information-processing theory
C) Behaviorism
D) Psychoanalytic theory

Question 64

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many scientists believed that bumps on the head reflected intelligence and character, a theory known as _____.

A) neurology
B) phrenology
C) anthropology
D) ethology

Question 65

Jimmy watches his friend kick a soccer ball into the goal. Later that day, Jimmy finds a soccer ball and proceeds to kick it into the goal. Jimmy most likely engaged in the same behavior as his friend due to _____.

A) classical conditioning
B) modeling
C) operant conditioning
D) reinforcement

Question 66

According to the text, social learning is particularly noticeable in _____.

A) infancy
B) early adolescence
C) late adolescence
D) early adulthood

Question 67

Sally has a dog at home, so she knows about dogs. She is walking down the street and sees an animal walking toward her. The animal has four legs, fur, and a tail. Sally knows that these are characteristics of dogs. But the animal coming toward her is meowing, not barking. Sally's mom tells her that the animal is a cat. Now when Sally sees an animal with four legs, a tail, and fur, she will conclude it is a dog if it barks and a cat if it meows, illustrating Piaget's concept of "_____."

A) operations
B) assimilation
C) equilibrium
D) accommodation

Question 68

According to Piaget, when old ideas are restructured to include new experiences, it is called "_____."

A) learning
B) assimilation
C) equilibrium
D) accommodation

Question 69

The modeling of behavior is more likely to occur when the model is all the following EXCEPT _____.

A) younger
B) admired
C) powerful
D) nurturing

Question 70

Sanjay has a small dog at home, so he knows about dogs. He is walking down the street and sees an animal walking toward him. The animal is very large; has four legs, fur, and a tail; and is barking. Sanjay knows that these are characteristics of a dog, given his knowledge of dogs. He quickly concludes that this animal is a dog. This example illustrates Piaget's concept of "_____."

A) operations
B) assimilation
C) equilibrium
D) accommodation

Question 71

According to Piaget, when new experiences are interpreted to fit into old ideas, it is called "_____."

A) learning
B) assimilation
C) equilibrium
D) accommodation

Question 72

The _____ measures electrical activity in the cortex.

A) EEG
B) ERP
C) MRI
D) fMRI

Question 73

According to Piaget, intellectual advancement occurs because of cognitive _____.

A) learning
B) resolution
C) equilibrium
D) modeling

Question 74

With regard to cognitive development, Piaget argued that _____ is more revealing than _____.

A) what children know; how they think
B) how children think; what they know
C) the cultural context; what children know
D) what children know; their cultural context

Question 75

The foundation of cognitive theory is _____.

A) observable behaviors
B) inner drives and motives
C) a person's thoughts and expectations
D) cultural influence

Question 76

Within the information-processing perspective, which is the correct sequential order for producing cognition?

A) The brain produces an output; input is picked up by the five senses; the brain reacts, connects, and stores memories.
B) The brain reacts, connects, and stores memories; input is picked up by the five senses; the brain produces an output.
C) Input is picked up by the five senses; the brain produces an output; the brain reacts, connects, and stores memories.
D) Input is picked up by the five senses; the brain reacts, connects, and stores memories; the brain produces an output.

Question 77

Antonia has always had a difficult time remembering things. She visited a psychologist and underwent tests that concluded that the way she senses input and then stores the information is interfering with her ability to recall the information. This explanation for Antonia's memory difficulties is consistent with _____ theory.

A) psychoanalytic
B) evolutionary
C) social learning
D) information-processing

Question 78

Piaget's four stages of cognitive development, in order, are _____.

A) formal operational, concrete operational, preoperational, and sensorimotor
B) preoperational, sensorimotor, formal operational, and concrete operational
C) sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
D) sensorimotor, preoperational, formal operational, and concrete operational

Question 79

With respect to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the more difficult cognitive adaptation is _____.

A) assimilation
B) accommodation
C) sensorimotor behavior
D) equilibrium

Question 80

Jenny has never seen a pear before today. As her mom hands it to her, she says that it is a fruit. Jenny knows that apples and bananas are fruits and that she likes eating them, so she has a reference for this new experience. Jenny is experiencing _____.

A) social learning
B) operant conditioning
C) guided participation
D) cognitive equilibrium