Deck 2: Seciton 1: Beginnings: Theories of Development

Question 1

Define Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and how it relates to learning. Provide two examples.

Answer 1

The zone of proximal development is the set of skills, knowledge, and concepts that a learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help. A mentor breaks a large task down into its parts, and then motivates and assists the learner to achieve it, one step at a time. Some frustration is permitted, but the learner must be actively engaged, never passive or overwhelmed. Mentors continually push for more competence by urging the learner to try something just a little harder rather than make a large leap. Examples include a person helping another learn how to tie one's shoes, swim, ride a bike, or ice skate. This is why physical therapists tailor exercises to their patients' current abilities.

Question 2

Freud's theory of psychosexual development and Erikson's theory of psychosocial development are two examples of psychoanalytic theory. First, describe two similarities of the theories. Second, describe two differences between the theories.

Answer 2

Both Freud and Erikson had stage theories based on the belief that adult problems echoed childhood conflicts. However, Erikson's psychosocial theory had eight stages, while Freud's psychosexual theory had just four. Erikson named two polarities at each stage, and his stages encompassed the entire lifespan, while Freud's ended at adolescence. Erikson's theory also emphasized the influence of family and culture, while Freud's theory emphasized unconscious sexual urges.

Question 3

Describe what Vygotsky meant by "apprenticeship in thinking" and "guided participation" and give an example of each.

Answer 3

Vygotsky stated that all adults teach children the skills expected by their society and culture. Apprenticeship in thinking is how Vygotsky described the more skilled members of the society acting as tutors or mentors to help a person develop skills. Guided participation is the method used by parents, teachers, and entire societies to teach novices (apprentices) the skills and habits expected within their culture.

Question 4

Name four kinds of theories and describe how they have contributed to science's understanding of human development.

Question 5

List Piaget's four stages of cognitive development in order, and explain what Piaget believed causes intellectual advancement.

Question 6

Name and describe each of the five levels in Maslow's hierarchy of needs in order.

Question 7

Describe the two biologically based drives associated with evolutionary theory and explain how selective adaptation relates to this theory.

Question 8

Define information-processing theory. According to this theory, what is the process that underlies cognition?

Question 9

First, describe classical and operant conditioning. Second, name the researcher who identified classical conditioning and the researcher who identified operant conditioning.

Question 10

Explain social learning theory. Where does it come from, and what does it emphasize? Then, describe the concept of modeling and indicate at least three reasons that a model is likely to be copied.

Question 11

What is a developmental theory? Identify the three things discussed in the text that a theory can do.

Question 12

Define "eclectic perspective" and provide an example of how a clinician might use this approach to explain a case of childhood aggression.