In the Context of the Impact of Unionization on the Firm

In the context of the impact of unionization on the firm, "shock effects" assume that:

A) Organizational slackness exists in the firm's production process.
B) Unions impose many costly, inefficient practices on firms.
C) The cost efficiency of the firm is high.
D) Working conditions are so shocking that the workers vote to unionize.
E) The net impact of the effects of unionization on a firm's productivity is ambiguous.