Russia's eastern orientation was reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT

Question

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Peter the Great's reign as Tsar of Russia actually marked a significant shift towards a more western orientation. He implemented many reforms and policies that were modeled after those in Western Europe, including modernizing the military, government, and education systems, and adopting the Western European calendar. This shift towards the west was continued by later tsars, and helped shape Russia into a more European country both culturally and politically.

Russia's Eastern Orientation Was Reinforced by All of the Following