Kraus' Recreation and Leisure in Modern Society 10th Edition by Daniel McLean, Linda Dayer-Berenson, Brian Luke Seaward, Amy Hurd

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Designing for Ethnic Minorities
One of the key concerns of outdoor recreation resource managers is the low number of racial and ethnic minorities visiting and participating in programs at outdoor recreation areas. Although not a new issue, land management agencies continue to struggle to find ways to engage these groups, especially as their population increases as a percentage of the total U.S. population. In a report prepared by the National Park Service (NPS) in 2008, five research hypotheses were reported that attempt to explain the lack of involvement in outdoor recreation. The hypotheses are marginality, subculture/ethnicity, discrimination, opportunity, and acculturation.
The marginality hypothesis suggests the differences in racial/ethnic minority representation are a result of socioeconomic factors caused by historical discrimination and include barriers such as limited financial resources, lower levels of education, and limited employment opportunities. The subculture/ethnicity hypothesis recognizes the influence of marginality on leisure and recreation patterns but argues the differences in park visitation, at least partially, are a result of cultural norms, value systems, social organizations, and socialization practices. Examples of cultural values or norms can include size of recreational groups, preferred activities (e.g., hiking, biking, swimming, picnicking), and development level of sites (e.g., bathrooms, pavilions, visitor centers). a
The discrimination hypothesis places importance on contemporary, post-civil rights discrimination that occurs from interpersonal contact with other visitors or park personnel or through institutional policies. The opportunity hypothesis examines the relationship between the residential location of minority populations, recreational sites, and recreation preferences. The acculturation hypothesis examines the relationship between cultural assimilation into the majority culture and recreational choices. According to this hypothesis, as a minority culture assimilates into the majority culture, they begin to take on the recreational patterns of the majority culture. a
Understanding the hypotheses is important, and moving from hypotheses to action is much more challenging. It frequently requires agencies to rethink how they do business, change organizational culture, recognize the organization is not representative of the population it is designated to serve, and finally, strive to overcome bureaucratic inertia that promotes preservation of the norm over change. Each outdoor management agency deals with the challenge in its own way, and often in multiple ways. Federal agencies initiate plans and actions at the director, regional, and local levels. Much of the actual work falls to the local level because, at this level, the situation is direct and immediate. For example, in the mid-1990s, the Pacific regional director for the NPS determined that the public relations programs were focusing only on traditional media resources such as major newspapers, television, and radio stations. He organized a taskforce charged with identifying alternative media outlets in the San Francisco Bay area. In a short period of time, they identified more than 300 media outlets focusing on specific racial and ethnic minority groups, as well as women, gays and lesbians, and people with disabilities.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers approached the development and renovation of recreation sites with a focus on providing facilities, amenities, and programs designed to meet the expressed needs of racial and ethnic minorities. In 2002, the Army Corps of Engineers published a report titled Managing for Ethnic Diversity: Recreation Facility and Service Modifications for Ethnic Minorities in which the premise was that ethnically universal designs can meet the needs of a progressively more diverse population. Ethnically universal design focuses on creation of programs and facilities that are more inclusive of ethnic cultural diversity. Specifically, the report suggests moving away from the traditional design model, called an ethnically neutral design, which focuses wholly on white middle-class nuclear families with the assumption that other ethnic groups would adapt to the design model. The new approach moves toward a model of embracing cultural pluralism. Further, the report argues that the development of day-use facilities are essential to the success of this model. b
The report suggests a variety of facilities and services that appeal to Hispanics, Asians, and African Americans. These services include the following:
Group shelters to provide shade and protection from inclement weather
Larger tables, or modular movable tables, to accommodate large family groups
Larger and easier-to-maintain grills and cookers for recreational cooking for large groups
Shade trees in picnic sites
Playgrounds (kid zones) near picnic areas
Open grassy play areas for sports that can accommodate a wide variety of activities
Facilities for communities events (e.g., large group shelter, gazebo, amphitheaters)
Use of universal symbols on signs
Interpretive signs on walking trails in Spanish and other dominant languages of the region
Mass transportation facilities (bus loading areas) at the most popular areas
Improved security through increased ranger patrols, bilingual rangers, and improved gatehouses at park entrances b
How has the move away from ethnically neutral design intended to improve attendance at outdoor areas