Deck 2: Research Methods

Question 1

A researcher is interested in studying the effects of viewing television violence on aggression in children. She shows one group of participants an extremely violent movie, another group a moderately violent movie, and a third group a nonviolent movie. In this case, the level of movie violence shown to the children would be considered the ______ variable, and the children's subsequent level of aggressive behavior would be the ______ variable.

Answer 1

Behavioral research takes into account two variables- independent and dependent variables. A variable is simply any entity that changes over time and is different under different situations and conditions. Temperature can be taken as a variable because it varies in different parts of the world and keeps changing from region to region and also sometimes, varies within the same region.
An independent variable is one type of variable in a research, which is manipulated and adjusted according to the needs and requirements of the researcher. The independent variable is an aspect of the research, which the experimenter intentionally varies in order to study its outcome on the subjects. This can be called as the cause of an experimental outcome.
A dependent variable is another type of variable in an experiment, which changes according to the change observed in the independent variable. No manipulations are done on the dependent variable by the researcher; rather it is allowed to freely vary. This can be called as the experimental outcome of the change in the independent variable.
The relationship between the two variables in a research can be called as the functional relationship. In this, the change in the dependent variable is induced by the amount of variation in the independent variable.
This can also be referred to as the cause-and-effect relationship, in which there is establishment of an association and the strength of association between the cause (independent variable) and the outcome (dependent variable).
In the given situation, groups of children are being shown movies with a variable amount of violence and their amount of aggression resulting from this is being noted.
Hence, the first blank can be filled with and the second blank can be filled with .

Question 2

______ is any event that can potentially influence behavior; a(n) ______ is a specific instance of behavior.

Answer 2

A stimulus is any cause of behavioral change. When a stimulus is applied, a corresponding change in action or a responsive action can be seen I the person receiving the stimulus. It can thus be called as any factor that can induce or influence potential behavioral change. The stimulus can be internal or external.
A response can be defined as the reaction of an organism that is elicited by any given stimulus. The instance of the behavioral change observed upon the application of the stimulus is said to be the response. The response can be internal or external.
Something that is the response by one organism, can serve as a stimulus for any other organism. For example, if a mouse bites another mouse, the 'bite' acts as a stimulus for the second mouse and in response it shakes off its body vigorously. This shaking can now serve as a stimulus for the first mouse, and result in a response where it stops biting the second mouse.
Overt behavior can be defined as a physical response action that can be observed by other individuals and can be detected distinctly. Covert behavior , on the other hand, is a type of response that cannot be publicly detectable. It is the response mechanisms active within the individual. These can include feeling emotions, hearing and seeing among others. Thus, it can only be perceived by the individual who is performing it.
Covert and overt behaviors within the same individual can also act as stimuli for each other and serve a purpose to elicit responses covertly or overtly.
Appetitive stimuli are specific stimuli that can make an individual to response in a positive manner. This means, that such a stimuli can elicit a response that would make the individual seek out for the stimuli.
Aversive stimuli are specific stimuli that can make an individual to response in a negative manner. The individual, in response to an aversive stimulus, will try to avoid or avert from the source of stimuli.
Appetitive events can be described as pleasant events and aversive events can be described as unpleasant events. However, actions can vary with words. Words or verbal response could mean something else than what is actually implemented by an individual in his or her action.
Hence, the first blank can be filled with and the second blank can be filled with .

Question 3

An e ______ o ______ is a procedure that affects the appetitiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus.

Answer 3

Appetitive stimuli are specific stimuli that can make an individual to response in a positive manner. This means, that such a stimuli can elicit a response that would make the individual seek out for the stimuli.
Aversive stimuli are specific stimuli that can make an individual to response in a negative manner. The individual, in response to an aversive stimulus, will try to avoid or avert from the source of stimuli.
Appetitive events can be described as pleasant events and aversive events can be described as unpleasant events. However, actions can vary with words. Words or verbal response could mean something else than what is actually implemented by an individual in his or her action.
The aversiveness and appetitiveness associated with a stimulus can be affected in a procedure called as an establishing operation. These can be of two types- deprivation and satiation.
Deprivation is a condition when an organism has been deprived of or has not been provided with an event for a very long period of time. This mostly results in an increase in the appetitiveness of a stimulus (or event).
For example- the use of food as a re-enforce for a behavior (lever pressing) in an experiment can be used to study the effect of deprivation. In this case, a mouse which has been starved for a long time will try to find the re-enforcer as soon as possible. Thus the value of the re-enforcer has been increased and food now acts as an appetitive stimulus for lever pressing behavior.
Satiation is a condition when an organism has been exposed to an event or stimulus for a longer time period and this renders the value or importance of the event as quite low. This mostly results in a decrease in the appetitiveness of a stimulus (or event).
For example- the use of food as a re-enforce for a behavior (lever pressing) in an experiment can be used to study the effect of satiation. In this case, a mouse which has been well-fed recently will not try to find the re-enforcer so quickly. Thus the value of the re-enforcer has been decreased and food now acts as an aversive stimulus for lever pressing behavior.
Another example can be the listening of a song over and over again, results in the decreased value of that song. The person may get tired of that song eventually and might try to avoid listening to it anymore. The song which was once appetitive now becomes an aversive stimulus because of prolonged exposure.
Contiguity is the state of being close to or nearby something. Temporal contiguity is the closeness in the occurrence of two events. For example- if the pressing of the lever is closely related with the acquisition of food, a mouse would more readily press the lever to obtain the food as soon as possible.
Spatial contiguity is the closeness in events in terms of space. For example- if the lever is located nearby the food dispenser, the mouse is more likely to press it than when it is located at another place away from the food dispenser.
Contingency refers to any future occurrence that can be predicted and that reflects an association between two events. Occurrence of one event can be used to determine the probability of occurrence of the other event is called as contingency.
For example- the pressing of the lever and its association with the acquisition of food pellet is an example of contingency. Every time a mouse presses the lever, he is sure enough to receive the food pellet.
Hence, the first blank can be filled with and the second blank can be filled with .

Question 4

Behavioral definitions should be ob ______ and un ______.

Question 5

Two common descriptive methods are n and c ______.

Question 6

In an experiment, a(n) ______ variable is systematically varied (manipulated) to determine its effects on the ______ variable.

Question 7

In a simple-comparison design, behavior in a b ______ condition is compared to behavior in a t ______ condition.

Question 8

With a multiple-baseline design, the treatment is instituted at different points in t ______ for one or more p ______, s ______, or b ______.

Question 9

In a changing-criterion design, the question of interest is whether the changes in behavior match changes in a c ______ for the behavior that is being systematically al ______.

Question 10

Two advantages to using animals for behavioral research is that one can more strictly control an animal's g ______ makeup and l ______ history.

Question 11

Distinguish between independent and dependent variables. What is a functional relationship?

Question 12

A change in the dependent variable is considered to be the (cause/ effect) ______ in an experiment, whereas a change in the independent variable is considered to be the ______.

Question 13

A tone is a s ______ and a tone and a bell are s ______.

Question 14

Farah has been working out of town and has not seen a movie for over a year. It is likely that the reward value of going to a movie has (increased/ decreased) ______ as a function of (satiation/deprivation) ______.

Question 15

The force with which a person can squeeze a device that measures grip strength is a measure of i ______.

Question 16

Both approaches are susceptible to the problem of researcher b ______, in which the opinions and beliefs of the researcher can unduly influence his or her observations.

Question 17

In the simplest form of a control group design, individuals are r ______ assigned to either an e ______ (or tr ______) group and a ______ group.

Question 18

A simple-comparison design (does/does not) ______ allow us to determine if there is a f ______ relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Question 19

A key advantage of the multiple-baseline design is that we do not have to w ______ the treatment to determine if it is effective.

Question 20

A changing-criterion design is most appropriate for assessing the effect of programs designed to produce a (sudden/gradual) ______ change in behavior.

Question 21

A third advantage to using animals is that the e ______ environment can more easily be controlled for animals than for humans.

Question 22

Define stimulus and response. Differentiate between the terms stimulus and stimuli.

Question 23

A relationship is the relationship between a change in an independent variable and an associated change in a dependent variable. Behaviorists are typically concerned with discovering the relationship between changes in e ______ events and changes in b ______.

Question 24

One person's response can be another person's ______.

Question 25

The term ______ means "closeness or nearness."

Question 26

How quickly a musician plays a musical piece from beginning to end is a measure of ______ whereas the number of hours the musician practices each week is a measure of ______. The amount of time it takes the musician to commence playing following the conductor's cue to begin is a measure of ______.

Question 27

The major limitation of both approaches is that it is often (easy/difficult) to ______ specify which variables influence which behavior.

Question 28

Control group designs that are used to assess behavioral differences between species are referred to as ______ designs.

Question 29

A reversal design (also called an ______ design) involves repeated alternations between a ______ period and a ______ period.

Question 30

It is therefore a preferable design for situations in which the treatment might result in a (temporary/permanent) ______ change in behavior, or where it might be un ______ to withdraw the treatment.

Question 31

In using this type of design, it is important that the level of behavior closely ______ the changes in the criterion for that behavior.

Question 32

A fourth advantage to using animals for research is that it would be u ______ to conduct certain types of studies with humans, such as examining the effects of brain lesions on learning ability.

Question 33

Distinguish between overt and covert behavior. Distinguish between appetitive and aversive stimuli.

Question 34

Julie dislikes Jake, one of the sales personnel who works in her department. Because Julie avoids Jake like the plague, Jake can be considered an ______ stimulus. For example, Julie closes her office door when Jake is nearby, which is an example of a(n) (overt/covert) ______ behavior.

Question 35

Erin says that she once experienced a strong pain in her leg at the precise moment that her son, who was away on a mountain-climbing expedition, broke his leg. Because of the t ______ c ______ between her feeling of pain and her son's injury, Erin now claims that she has some type of psychic ability.

Question 36

The exact manner in which Jana lifts a dumbbell and presses it overhead is called the t ______ of the behavior.

Question 37

Because the case study approach often involves only one person, the results may be limited in the extent to which they can be g ______ to other people, places, and times.

Question 38

Briefly stated, three problems with control group designs are:
a. _________
b. _________
c. _________

Question 39

What type of result do we need to see during the second baseline phase to determine whether our treatment is the cause of the change in the behavior? ______.

Question 40

The changing-criterion design can be strengthened by including periods in which the criterion suddenly ______

Question 41

Two arguments against the use of animals in research are:
a. ______
b. ______

Question 42

Define establishing operation. Name and describe two types of establishing operations.

Question 43

Julie also thinks unkind thoughts about Jake and feels anxious when she sees him in the hallway, both of which are examples of behavior.

Question 44

People who live close to each other are more likely to date and fall in love. Thus, s ______ c ______ seems to have a strong effect on the development of romantic relationships.

Question 45

The time it takes before a response begins is a measure of l ______.

Question 46

A reversal design is inappropriate for an experiment in which the treatment is expected to produce a (temporary/permanent) ______ change in the behavior.

Question 47

Distinguish between contiguity and contingency. Name and define two types of contiguity.

Question 48

Jake is strongly attracted to Julie and often hangs around her office just to get a glimpse of her. Julie is thus an ______ stimulus for Jake.

Question 49

Sasha obtains a high mark on her exams only when she studies diligently. For Sasha, there is a c ______ between studying diligently and doing well on her exams.

Question 50

The number of fish a person catches in a 1-hour period is a measure of r ______.

Question 51

A reversal design is also inappropriate when the act of withdrawing a successful treatment would lead to e ______ problems.

Question 52

Define rate of response. Why is rate of response a particularly favored measure of behavior among radical behaviorists (include an example)?

Question 53

If we think before we act, then our (covert/overt) ______ behavior serves as a stimulus that influences our (covert/overt) ______ behavior. If we act first and then feel regret later, then our ______ behavior serves as a stimulus that influences our ______ behavior.

Question 54

If a dog receives a dog biscuit only when it begs, then receiving the dog biscuit is c ______ upon the behavior of begging.

Question 55

Recording whether Ashley hiccups during a continuous series of 5-minute time periods is an example of ______ recording, whereas recording whether hiccupping occurs during a 5-minute period at the start of each hour throughout the day is an example of ______-______ recording.

Question 56

How does one distinguish a high rate of response versus a low rate of response versus a period of no response on a cumulative record?

Question 57

A device commonly used to measure the ongoing rate of a behavior is a c ______ r ______. On this device, a flat line indicates (no/slow/ fast) ______ responding, a steep line indicates ______ responding, and a shallow line indicates ______ responding.

Question 58

Define speed, duration, and latency measures of behavior, and give a clear example of each.

Question 59

Which of the following is an example of a rate measure of writing? (a) number of words written (b) the number of words written per hour.

Question 60

Define the intensity and topography of a behavior, and give a clear example of each.

Question 61

In an interval recording procedure, our two observers agreed on whether Mika was being disruptive in class during 15 of the 20 observed intervals. The level of interobserver reliability in this example is ______ %, which is generally considered (adequate/inadequate) ______.

Question 62

Define interval recording and time-sample recording, and give a clear example of each. Specify how the overall measure of behavior is calculated.

Question 63

How does one calculate the reliability of observations conducted with a interval recording procedure? Illustrate your answer with an example.

Question 64

Name and describe two types of descriptive research methods. What is the major limitation of descriptive research methods?

Question 65

Describe the simplest form of a control group design. How are subjects assigned to the different conditions, and why is this done?

Question 66

What is a comparative design?

Question 67

What are three limitations of control group designs?

Question 68

What are single-subject designs? Describe a simple-comparison design. In what sense is it a "flawed" design?

Question 69

Describe a reversal design. What are three disadvantages with this type of design?

Question 70

Describe a multiple-baseline design. What are two limitations of this type of design?

Question 71

Describe a changing-criterion design. How can it be strengthened? For what types of situations is this design appropriate?

Question 72

List four advantages and two disadvantages of using animals as subjects in behavioral research.