Deck 2: The Elements of Argument

Question 1

What do the authors mean by saying that the direction of argumentation must always be from the more obvious to the less obvious? Explain.

Answer 1

good essay will:
1. Explain clearly what is meant by direction of argumentation.
2. Which claims in the argument should be the more obvious and which less obvious, and why?
3. Provide examples that illustrate your point.

Question 2

How is it that nondeductive arguments can be considered good reasoning even though they do not pass the test of validity?

Answer 2

No Answer

Question 3

Why is Sherlock Holmes's use of "deduction" not the same as how logicians use the term, and how do the authors define this type of reasoning?

Answer 3

No Answer

Question 4

The task of logic is to establish rules of inference.

Question 5

Deductive arguments require valid premises.

Question 6

A valid argument can only be a deductive argument.

Question 7

An argument with false premises can never be valid.

Question 8

An invalid nondeductive argument can still be an example of good reasoning.

Question 9

Positive instances confirm an inductive generalization.

Question 10

Hypothesis testing in science is an example of deductive reasoning.

Question 11

Inference to the best explanation is an example of inductive reasoning.

Question 12

Argument analysis involves identifying premises and conclusion in ordinary language.

Question 13

Adding unstated assumptions to a reconstructed argument is not acceptable in argument analysis.

Question 14

An argument in logic consists of

A) Obviously true statements.
B) Controversial statements.
C) A collection of statements including one or more premises and a conclusion.
D) True statements.

Question 15

The central concept of deductive logic is

A) Truth.
B) Validity.
C) Inference.
D) Necessity.

Question 16

A valid deductive argument must have

A) True premises.
B) A true conclusion.
C) Both a and
D) Neither a nor

Question 17

A nondeductive argument is

A) Always an example of bad reasoning.
B) Not necessarily an example of bad reasoning.
C) Valid.
D) Always an example of good reasoning.

Question 18

Inductive arguments rely on

A) Observed cases to infer the recurrence of unobserved cases.
B) Unobserved cases to infer the recurrence of observed cases.
C) A valid inference from premises to conclusion.
D) Lack of evidence.

Question 19

Our strength of belief should

A) Decrease with the number of positive instances of a claim.
B) Decrease with the variety of positive instances of a claim.
C) Increase with the number of positive instances of a claim.
D) Depend on our inner certitude of a claim's truth.

Question 20

The successful test of a hypothesis

A) Counts against of the hypothesis.
B) Counts in favor of the hypothesis.
C) Does not affect the confirmation of the hypothesis.
D) Means the hypothesis is true.

Question 21

Inference to the best explanation requires that

A) The truth of the conclusion gives us good reason to expect that the premises are true.
B) The truth of the premises gives us good reason to expect that the conclusion is true.
C) The conclusion follows from the premises deductively.
D) The conclusion could never be false given the truth of the premises.

Question 22

The initial step in argument analysis is to

A) Add unstated assumptions.
B) Evaluate the strength of the inference.
C) Identify the premises and conclusion.
D) Discard rhetorical fluff.

Question 23

The most important step in argument analysis is to

A) Add unstated assumptions.
B) Evaluate the strength of the inference.
C) Identify the premises and conclusion.
D) Discard rhetorical fluff.

Question 24

Explain the difference between a deductive argument and an inductive argument.

Question 25

Define "validity" in your own words. Then give an example of a valid argument and explain why it is valid.

Question 26

Give an example of an invalid argument with a missing premise. Then put the argument into standard form. Now provide a counterexample to the argument and explain why it shows that the argument is invalid.

Question 27

Give an example of an argument that begs the question. Explain why and exactly how the argument is fallacious.

Question 28

Provide an example of an ambiguous word and give its multiple meanings. Then provide an example of where this word gives rise to a verbal dispute. Explain how a definition might resolve the dispute.

Question 29

What is an ad hominem argument? Can you think of any context in which such arguments are common? Explain whether you think they are a problem in this context and why.

Question 30

It is always good to define one's words before using them to persuade someone else about something.

Question 31

As logicians use the term, "fallacy" refers to a mistaken belief or false statement.

Question 32

A metaphor can provide a revelatory definition.

Question 33

Circular reasoning is called ad hominem.

Question 34

The fallacy of petitio principii involves circular reasoning.

Question 35

Fallacious reasoning is often very convincing.

Question 36

Ambiguous words are at the heart of verbal disputes.

Question 37

It is always a fallacy to appeal to famous people in support of one's conclusion.

Question 38

An analytical definition may be arbitrary.

Question 39

A fallacy is an invalid argument.

Question 40

A fallacy is

A) A tempting logical mistake in reasoning.
B) The use of ambiguous terms.
C) An invalid argument.
D) A mistaken belief.

Question 41

Any fallacy must include a

A) False premise
B) False conclusion.
C) Both a or
D) Neither a nor

Question 42

The fallacy of complex question

A) Is not a fallacy at all.
B) Is a particular version of the ad hominem fallacy.
C) Is a particular version of the fallacy of petitio principii.
D) Involves appeal to irrelevant authority.

Question 43

An argument that fails to prove anything because it takes for granted what it is supposed to prove is

A) The fallacy of complex question.
B) A particular version of the fallacy of petitio principii.
C) The ad hominem fallacy.
D) The fallacy of black-and-white thinking.

Question 44

An appeal to unsuitable authority is

A) A fallacy of irrelevance.
B) A particular version of the fallacy of petitio principii.
C) Occurs when there is no good reason to think this authority is an expert on the issue.
D) Both a and c.

Question 45

An analytical definition should not be

A) Too broad.
B) Too narrow.
C) Circular.
D) All of the above.

Question 46

A stipulative definition should not

A) Be too broad.
B) Assign an arbitrary definition to a word with an established meaning.
C) Be arbitrary.
D) Be circular.

Question 47

Revelatory definitions

A) Characterize the meaning a word already has.
B) Stipulate how a speaker intends to use a word.
C) Increase the ambiguity of a word.
D) Perfect the usage of a word growing out of previously established usages.

Question 48

Defining all of one's terms at the beginning of a discussion is

A) Necessary to avoid confusion.
B) Possible to do but not necessary.
C) Impossible because there will always be undefined terms no matter how far one proceeds.
D) The only way to make sure the speakers are discussing the same thing.

Question 49

A verbal dispute arises when

A) A word is being used with different meanings.
B) A word is clearly defined.
C) Two people disagree on an issue.
D) A fallacy of reasoning is used.

Question 50

Everyone is familiar with the scene in which a lawyer objects that the other side is "leading the witness" in a courtroom examination. What fallacy is being committed? Why is it pernicious in this context? Explain.

Question 51

What is the fallacy of black-and-white thinking? Why is it a fallacy? Explain first by providing your own example of the phenomenon and second by explaining how things could go better if the fallacy were not committed.

Question 52

Give your own example of a revelatory definition and explain why it is correct.

Question 53

Explain why it is important not to confuse necessary and sufficient conditions. In your answer, provide an example of a condition that is necessary but not sufficient, an example of a condition that is sufficient but not necessary, and finally an example of a condition that is both necessary and sufficient for another condition.

Question 54

Imagine that a dog trainer says, "My obedience course is sufficient to make any dog well-behaved." A listener responds by saying, "My dog is already well-behaved, without taking your course, so that proves you are wrong." Is the listener correct? Why or why not?

Question 55

Imagine that a philosopher says, "Knowing how to read is a necessary condition for being a philosopher." A listener responds by saying, "I'm a philosopher, but I don't know how to read." Has the listener proved that the philosopher's statement is wrong? Why or why not?

Question 56

Confusing necessary and sufficient conditions is a common mistake in reasoning.

Question 57

If A is necessary for B, then B is necessary for

Question 58

If A is necessary for B, then B is sufficient for

Question 59

For human beings, breathing is a sufficient condition for staying alive.

Question 60

It is a fallacy to reason that if A is sufficient for B, then A is necessary for

Question 61

If A is sufficient for B, then B is necessary for

Question 62

Being at least eighteen is a necessary condition for voting in the United States.

Question 63

Being a rectangle with four equal sides is necessary and sufficient for being a square.

Question 64

The presence of oxygen is a sufficient condition for a candle to be burning.

Question 65

A candle burning is a sufficient condition for the presence of oxygen.

Question 66

If one state affairs, A, is a necessary condition for another state of affairs, B, then

A) A cannot occur without B occurring.
B) B cannot occur without A occurring.
C) Both a and
D) Neither a nor

Question 67

If A is a sufficient condition for B, then B is

A) A necessary condition for
B) A sufficient condition for
C) Both necessary and sufficient for
D) Neither necessary nor sufficient for

Question 68

For a human to live, being able to breathe is

A) A necessary condition.
B) A sufficient condition.
C) Both a necessary and a sufficient condition.
D) Neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition.

Question 69

For a rectangle to be considered a square, having four sides of equal length is

A) A necessary condition.
B) A sufficient condition.
C) Both a necessary and a sufficient condition.
D) Neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition.

Question 70

To be a college student, owning a computer is

A) A necessary condition.
B) A sufficient condition.
C) Both a necessary and a sufficient condition.
D) Neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition.

Question 71

For a shape to be a triangle, having three sides is

A) A necessary condition.
B) A sufficient condition.
C) Both a necessary and a sufficient condition.
D) Neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition.

Question 72

For winning a race, crossing the finish line first is

A) A necessary condition.
B) A sufficient condition.
C) Both a necessary and a sufficient condition.
D) Neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition.

Question 73

"You can't be a good athlete without studying ballet." Which of these would be the best way to prove that this statement is false?

A) Show an example of a good athlete who has studied ballet.
B) Show an example of a good athlete who has NOT studied ballet.
C) Show an example of a ballet student who is a good athlete.
D) Show an example of a ballet student who is NOT a good athlete.

Question 74

Claim: "Caring about students is a necessary condition for being a good teacher." Objection: "Lots of people care about students and still aren't good teachers." Does this objection show that the claim is wrong?

A) No, because the claim is only that caring is necessary, not sufficient.
B) No, because caring can be necessary and still be sufficient.
C) Yes, because caring about students is both necessary and sufficient.
D) Yes, because it's true that caring is not sufficient to make one a good teacher.

Question 75

A certain college requires all students to have physical education credits to graduate. For this college, physical education is

A) A necessary condition for graduating.
B) A sufficient condition for graduating.
C) Both necessary and sufficient for graduating.
D) Neither necessary nor sufficient for graduating.

Question 76

A college offers an elective course in the history of philosophy. Students may choose to take it to fill a humanities requirement or they make take a different course. For this college, the history of philosophy course is

A) A necessary condition for graduating.
B) A sufficient condition for graduating.
C) Both necessary and sufficient for graduating.
D) Neither necessary nor sufficient for graduating.

Question 77

A philosopher says, "Studying philosophy is sufficient to teach critical thinking." Which would be the best response if you wanted to argue that this statement was false?

A) "Other disciplines, like literature or science, are just as good at teaching critical thinking."
B) "Other disciplines, like literature or science, also teach very important skills."
C) "Other disciplines, like literature or science, are also necessary for teaching critical thinking."
D) "Other disciplines, like literature or science, could also be sufficient for teaching critical thinking."

Question 78

"Practicing is necessary if you want to play guitar well." Which of these would be the best response if you wanted to prove that this statement is false? (Pretend for a minute that it's false.)

A) Talent is also necessary if you want to play well.
B) Some people play well even though they have never practiced.
C) Some people learn to play faster than others.
D) Some people never learn to play well even though they practice.

Question 79

A job ad says, "Qualified candidates for this job must speak fluent Latin." This means that

A) Speaking Latin is sufficient for getting the job.
B) Speaking Latin is necessary for getting the job.
C) Speaking Latin is necessary and sufficient for getting the job.
D) Speaking Latin is neither necessary nor sufficient for getting the job.

Question 80

If a college degree is a necessary condition to be hired for a certain job, then

A) The degree cannot, logically, be a sufficient condition for being hired.
B) The degree must, logically, be a sufficient condition for being hired.
C) If you have the degree, you will definitely get the job.
D) If you don't have the degree, you definitely won't get the job.