Ecology 6th Edition by Charles Krebs

Exercise 3

Altruism-personal sacrifice on behalf of others-is difficult for behavioral ecologists and evolutionary biologists to explain because natural selection favors the interests of individuals. Nevertheless, altruistic behaviors toward relatives are observed in many animal societies. Is there any way that altruism among nonrelatives can evolve in animal societies? How might altruism arise in human societies if it is based on self-interest? Gintis et al. (2003) discuss this question.