Deck 4: Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity

Question 1

The effect of _____ on _____ was vividly demonstrated in Zimbardo's (1971) classic study of a simulated prison.

A) attitudes; behaviors
B) roles; attitudes
C) roles; behaviors
D) attitudes; roles

Answer 1

roles; behaviors

Question 2

The implicit association test (IAT)

A) measures conscious attitudes.
B) measures unconscious attitudes.
C) measures both conscious and unconscious attitudes.
D) measures our controlled behaviors.

Answer 2

measures unconscious attitudes.

Question 3

Attitudes best predict behavior when they are

A) particularly formed by hearsay.
B) less enduring to guide actions.
C) generic rather than specific.
D) readily accessible and stable.

Answer 3

readily accessible and stable.

Question 4

According to studies on implicit attitudes, which of the following statements about changing behaviors through persuasion is the most accurate?

A) It is easy for people to change if you tell them to change.
B) There is no way people will change.
C) It is best to work on general situations.
D) It is best to work on specific situations.

Question 5

Which statement is NOT true according to attitude research?

A) Attitudes best predict behavior when they are formed by direct experience.
B) Attitudes best predict behavior when they are more accessible, more enduring, and more likely to guide actions.
C) Attitudes best predict behavior when they are specific to the behavior of the subjects.
D) Attitudes best predict behavior when social influences on the subjects are the highest.

Question 6

People's attitude toward religion is a(n) _____ predictor of whether they will go to worship next weekend.

A) strong
B) average
C) poor
D) reliable

Question 7

Attitudes include all of the following EXCEPT

A) affects.
B) behavioral tendencies.
C) cognitions.
D) aptitudes.

Question 8

The finding that religious attitudes can predict the total quantity of religious behaviors over time is an example of

A) moral hypocrisy.
B) the false consensus effect.
C) the ABCs of attitudes.
D) the principle of aggregation.

Question 9

In the context of dual processing, automatic thinking is _____.

A) controlled
B) conscious
C) deliberate
D) implicit

Question 10

In 1964, Leon Festinger observed that

A) changing people's attitude often hardly affects their behavior.
B) attitudes guide behaviors.
C) people's behavior are a result of their changing attitudes.
D) attitudes and behaviors varied together.

Question 11

According to Batson and his colleagues (2002), _____ is appearing moral while avoiding the costs of being so.

A) moral conflict
B) moral cowardice
C) moral hypocrisy
D) moral realism

Question 12

In the ABCs of attitudes, "C" stands for

A) care.
B) connotation.
C) cognition.
D) concern.

Question 13

Diener and Wallbom (1976) found that when research participants were instructed to stop working on a problem after a bell sounded, 71 percent continued working when left alone. How many continued to work after the bell if they were made self-aware by working in front of a mirror?

A) 70 percent
B) 43 percent
C) 31 percent
D) 7 percent

Question 14

In 1969, social psychologist Allan Wicker completed a review of dozens of research studies and concluded that people's expressed attitudes _____ predicted their varying behaviors.

A) hardly
B) most often
C) strongly
D) always

Question 15

In the ABCs of attitudes, "A" stands for

A) aptitude.
B) attribution.
C) attraction.
D) affect.

Question 16

Higgins and Rholes (1978) found that when people say something positive to others when told to supported the research that

A) saying it changes our beliefs or feelings.
B) saying it does not change our beliefs or feelings.
C) saying it changes the other person's mind.
D) saying it does not change the other person's mind.

Question 17

A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave is what social psychologists call a(n)

A) benchmark.
B) guideline.
C) role.
D) stereotype.

Question 18

When social psychologists try to measure attitudes of people, they

A) get a direct reading of their behaviors.
B) easily obtain the changes in attitudes by controlling all external social influences.
C) predominantly avoid recording and evaluating implicit and explicit attitudes.
D) end up measuring expressed attitudes.

Question 19

Which of the following statements is true about predictors of behavior?

A) Explicit attitudes are a good predictor of behavior that have been formed early in life.
B) Implicit attitudes are a good predictor of behavior that denotes an individual's liking for a particular political party.
C) Both explicit and implicit attitudes help predict people's behavior.
D) In predicting behavior, implicit attitudes are better than explicit attitudes regardless of the situation.

Question 20

Although you may spend the evening surfing the Internet rather than studying, you have generally been quite a disciplined student throughout your academic career and have always held the attitude that studying is important. The relationship between your studying behavior and your attitude toward studying can best be described by which social psychological term?

A) moral hypocrisy
B) behavioral inconsistency
C) the ABCs of attitudes
D) the principle of aggregation

Question 21

The daily flag salute by school children in the U.S. is an attempt to use _____ to build _____.

A) compliance; attitudes
B) public beliefs; private conformity
C) public conformity; private allegiance
D) conformity; compliance

Question 22

The attitudes-follow-behavior effect is strongest when

A) people are rewarded for their behavior.
B) people feel that they have no choice in their behavior.
C) people feel that they have some choice in their behavior.
D) the behavior has no foreseeable consequences.

Question 23

Research indicates that harming an innocent victim, especially voluntarily, leads one to

A) feel increasingly guilty.
B) disparage the victim to justify the behavior.
C) act more kindly toward others.
D) become more aggressive toward others.

Question 24

At the beginning of the Iraq war only 38 percent of Americans said the war was justified even if Iraq did not have weapons of mass destruction. When no such weapons were found after the war, 58 percent of Americans then supported the war. Myers explains this revision of people's memories of the government's rationale for going to war as an example of

A) self-presentation.
B) cognitive dissonance.
C) terror management theory.
D) self-perception.

Question 25

The cognitive dissonance theory was formulated by

A) James Laird.
B) William James.
C) Leon Festinger.
D) Daryl Bem.

Question 26

Which of the following theories assumes that to reduce discomfort, we justify our actions to ourselves?

A) self-presentation theory
B) self-consistency theory
C) cognitive dissonance theory
D) terror management theory

Question 27

No one wants to look foolishly inconsistent, according to _____ theory.

A) self-perception
B) self-justification
C) self-presentation
D) social orientation

Question 28

Impression management is to _____ as cognitive dissonance is to _____.

A) overjustification; insufficient justification
B) false consensus effect; false uniqueness effect
C) self-monitoring; self-presentation
D) self-presentation; self-justification

Question 29

Following the U.S. Supreme Court's 1954 decision to desegregate schools, the percentage of White Americans favoring integrated schools more than doubled. This is an example of how

A) attitudes influence behavior when they are specific to the behavior examined.
B) attitudes influence behavior when they are potent.
C) moral attitudes feed moral actions.
D) moral actions feed moral attitudes.

Question 30

Research on how behavior affects our attitudes suggests all the findings EXCEPT that

A) people don't adapt what they say to please their listeners.
B) people are quicker to tell people good news rather than bad.
C) people adjust their message toward their listener's position.
D) people adjust their message to their listeners, and having done so, believe the altered message.

Question 31

Which of the following theories assumes that for strategic reasons, we express attitudes that make us appear consistent?

A) self-presentation theory
B) self-consistency theory
C) cognitive dissonance theory
D) self-perception theory

Question 32

In the context of evil and moral acts, research indicates that if you wish to love someone more, you should

A) let them do favors for you.
B) ignore their negative traits.
C) act as if you do.
D) focus on their positive traits.

Question 33

Impression management, or making a good impression by being consistent in our attitudes reflects the

A) self-presentation theory.
B) self-consistency theory.
C) cognitive dissonance theory.
D) self-perception theory.

Question 34

In the context of thought-control and POWs (prisoners of war), prisoners were _____ to comply with a large request if they comply with a small request first.

A) less likely
B) more likely
C) not interested
D) unlikely

Question 35

If the number of people in favor of gay and lesbian marriage increases after a law is passed allowing for such, this would be an example of how

A) attitudes influence behavior when they are specific to the behavior examined.
B) attitudes influence behavior when they are potent.
C) moral attitudes feed moral actions.
D) moral actions feed moral attitudes.

Question 36

Research revealed that the POWs (prisoners of war) of the Korean War were brainwashed through the tactic of

A) torture and punishment.
B) gradually escalating demands.
C) attitude adjustment.
D) confidence-building.

Question 37

The tendency to seek information and media that agree with one's views and to avoid dissonant information is called _____.

A) selective exposure
B) defensive pessimism
C) impact bias
D) hindsight bias

Question 38

The tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions is called

A) cognitive tension.
B) cognitive inconsistency.
C) cognitive dissonance.
D) cognitive interference.

Question 39

Although you were opposed to the war with Iraq, your attitude changed when you were required to report on the justifications for it at your job as a newspaper journalist. Which theory best explains the change in your attitude?

A) self-presentation theory
B) self-consistency theory
C) cognitive dissonance theory
D) self-perception theory

Question 40

Identify the true statement about cognitive dissonance theory.

A) It assumes that for strategic reasons we express attitudes that make us appear consistent.
B) It highlights the arousal of tension when two differing thoughts coexist.
C) It focuses on doing acts as per one's discretion without providing any justification for such acts.
D) It is most commonly referred to as the planning fallacy.

Question 41

After much deliberation, you decide on a college to attend. After you have made your decision, you find yourself reducing any dissonance by _____ the chosen university and _____ the unchosen universities.

A) emphasizing; revamping
B) revamping; emphasizing
C) downgrading; upgrading
D) upgrading; downgrading

Question 42

According to the dissonance theory, managers, teachers, and parents should use _____ to elicit the desired behavior.

A) reminders of their legitimate authority
B) only social punishments and rewards
C) promises rather than threats
D) the smallest possible incentive

Question 43

Though she is opposed to capital punishment, Lisa is asked to give a speech in favor of it to round out a class debate. In the context of insufficient justification, dissonance theory predicts that her true attitude will undergo the most change if she

A) makes a speech implying capital punishment is really wrong.
B) agrees to give the speech but only if she tells both sides.
C) agrees to give the speech without special incentives.
D) agrees to give the speech for a large reward.

Question 44

The insufficient justification effect involves reducing dissonance by _____ justifying one's behavior when _____ justification is insufficient.

A) externally; internal
B) internally; external
C) cognitively; emotional
D) emotionally; cognitive

Question 45

Sarah has always strongly believed that it is wrong to steal, but after she steals a bottle of nail polish from the drug store, her attitude toward stealing becomes significantly less harsh. Which theory best accounts for her shift in attitude?

A) cognitive dissonance theory
B) self-perception theory
C) reinforcement theory
D) role-playing theory

Question 46

Which theory explains our conclusion that we must be anxious of something because we woke up before dawn?

A) self-presentation theory
B) self-consistency theory
C) cognitive dissonance theory
D) self-perception theory

Question 47

Which theory explains our conclusion that we must be nervous because we feel shaky, while forgetting we just had two cups of strong coffee?

A) self-presentation theory
B) self-consistency theory
C) cognitive dissonance theory
D) self-perception theory

Question 48

Schnall and Laird's (2003) research revealed that individuals induced to repeatedly practice happy expressions tended to recall more happy memories and found their happy mood lingered. This is best explained by the

A) self-presentation theory.
B) self-consistency theory.
C) cognitive dissonance theory.
D) self-perception theory.

Question 49

As a teenager, your parents always compelled you to clean your room. Now that you are living on your own, you feel no motivation to clean, as there are no parents around to nag you. This shows that

A) only enough incentive is not effective in eliciting desired behaviors.
B) authoritarian management will be effective even when the authority is absent.
C) people are unlikely to internalize forced behavior.
D) behaviors follow attitudes for which we feel some responsibility.

Question 50

You have recently earned a promotion at work and are now a manager. You decide to use your knowledge of social psychology to improve the working conditions of your new subordinates. You know that the dissonance theory predicts that attitudes will follow behaviors for which we feel some responsibility; therefore you decide to use _____ to elicit the desired behaviors in your subordinates.

A) reminders of your legitimate authority
B) only social punishments and rewards
C) promises rather than threats
D) only enough incentive

Question 51

When we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them the same way someone else would who was observing us-that is, we look at our behavior.
Which theory does this describe?

A) self-presentation theory
B) self-consistency theory
C) cognitive dissonance theory
D) self-perception theory

Question 52

If you are studying because you want to do well in a course and truly want to understand the material, you are more likely to want to study in the future as compared to those students who view studying as compulsory. Your situation is an example of how

A) attitudes follow behaviors.
B) behaviors follow attitudes.
C) attitudes follow behaviors for which we feel some responsibility.
D) behaviors follow attitudes for which we feel some responsibility.

Question 53

After spending a great deal of time researching vehicles, Linda makes a purchase. After having owned the vehicle for several months, she experiences dissonance and wonders if she made the right decision with her purchase. According to dissonance theory, we would expect Linda to reduce her dissonance by _____ the chosen vehicle and _____ the unchosen vehicles.

A) revamping; customizing
B) customizing; revamping
C) downgrading; upgrading
D) upgrading; downgrading

Question 54

A research study had experimental participants perform a dull task but paid them to lie by telling a prospective participant that the task had been enjoyable. Results showed that the participants who were paid _____ came to believe that the task had been _____.

A) $1; tedious and boring
B) $1; interesting and enjoyable
C) $20; interesting and enjoyable
D) $20; tedious and boring

Question 55

Which theory assumes that we observe our actions for clues about our own attitudes and beliefs?

A) self-presentation
B) cognitive dissonance
C) self-justification
D) self-perception

Question 56

Once we make a decision or choice, and feel some cognitive dissonance,

A) we form additional reasons for that decision or choice.
B) we begin to doubt our reasons for making that decision or choice.
C) we become less confident about the decision or choice.
D) the option we did not choose becomes more attractive.

Question 57

You are fortunate to receive multiple job offers after graduating from college. You find the decision-making very difficult, but once you decide on an offer to accept, you notice yourself _____ the job offers that you did not accept in order to reduce dissonance.

A) focusing on
B) revamping
C) downgrading
D) upgrading

Question 58

Which of the following theories assumes that our actions are self-revealing?

A) self-presentation theory
B) self-consistency theory
C) cognitive dissonance theory
D) self-perception theory

Question 59

You receive more than one marriage proposal, and after deciding on who you wish to spend your life with, dissonance theory would predict that you would _____ the individual whose proposal you did accept.

A) disregard
B) ignore
C) downgrade
D) upgrade

Question 60

After making important decisions, we usually reduce dissonance by _____ the chosen alternative and _____ the unchosen option.

A) emphasizing; revamping
B) revamping; emphasizing
C) downgrading; upgrading
D) upgrading; downgrading

Question 61

Which theory assumes that when our attitudes regarding something are weak to begin with, we will use our behavior and its circumstances as a clue to those attitudes?

A) self-perception theory
B) self-justification theory
C) self-presentation theory
D) self-affirmation theory

Question 62

The _____ occurs when someone offers an unnecessary reward beforehand in an obvious effort to control behavior.

A) foot-in-the-door effect
B) self-justification effect
C) overjustification effect
D) insufficient justification effect

Question 63

Vaughan and Lanzetta's (1981) study required participants to observe someone receiving an electric shock. Some, but not all, of the participants were required to make a pained expression whenever the shock was implemented. The results indicated that compared to those students who were not required to make a pained expression, those who did perspired more and had faster heart rates whenever they observed the person being shocked. Which theory are the results consistent with?

A) self-presentation theory
B) self-consistency theory
C) cognitive dissonance theory
D) self-perception theory

Question 64

Which theory predicts that when people experience a self-image threat after engaging in an undesirable behavior, they will compensate by affirming another aspect of the self?

A) self-perception theory
B) self-justification theory
C) self-presentation theory
D) self-affirmation theory

Question 65

According to the overjustification effect, promising children a reward for doing what they already intrinsically enjoy will

A) lead to more enjoyment of the activity.
B) lead to less enjoyment of the activity.
C) increase the time and effort they put into the activity.
D) encourage them to do the activity on their own, without the promise of future rewards.

Question 66

According to the overjustification effect, reinforcements that praise people tend to _____ intrinsic motivation, and reinforcement that seeks to control people _____ intrinsic motivation.

A) decrease; increases
B) increase; decreases
C) spike; instills
D) downgrade; upgrades

Question 67

The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing and after which they may see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing is best explained by the

A) self-presentation theory.
B) emotional contagion theory.
C) overjustification effect.
D) insufficient justification effect.

Question 68

Jeremy loses his former interest in doing arithmetic after his teacher promises him $1 for each problem he solves correctly. Which theory best explains Jeremy's loss of interest in arithmetic?

A) self-perception theory
B) cognitive dissonance theory
C) self-presentation theory
D) self-monitoring theory

Question 69

Myra's neighbor, a little boy, practices his saxophone loudly and annoyingly. According to the overjustification effect, if Myra wants to get him to quit playing, she should

A) show her annoyance.
B) pay him to quit playing.
C) pay him a small amount to quit playing and then offer him more and more.
D) pay him to play and then offer him less and less.

Question 70

Applying the self-perception theory, the best way to cultivate Mark's enjoyment of a task that is not intrinsically appealing to him is to use incentives to have him comply with the behavior and then suggest that

A) he did the task for an intrinsic reason.
B) he did the task for an extrinsic reason.
C) he did the task because he was forced into doing it.
D) he not do the task again.

Question 71

The major difference between the dissonance theory and the self-perception theory is that the former relies on the motivating effects of _____, while the latter does not.

A) behavior
B) self-awareness
C) tension
D) self-inference

Question 72

Although your mother had to nag you to clean your room as a child, she always praised your desire to keep your room clean and orderly when you finished. Her comments likely _____ your intrinsic motivation to maintain a clean and orderly environment on your own.

A) increased
B) decreased
C) eliminated
D) downgraded

Question 73

As a teenager, you enjoyed jogging. Concerned with your weight, your parents gave you money whenever you went jogging. According to the self-perception theory, your parents' behavior is most likely to _____ your intrinsic motivation for jogging.

A) decrease
B) increase
C) upgrade
D) emphasize

Question 74

When external inducements are insufficient to justify our behavior, we reduce dissonance by justifying the behavior internally. Which of the following theories explains this insufficient justification effect?

A) self-inducement
B) self-presentation
C) cognitive justification
D) cognitive dissonance

Question 75

Which of the following theories explains the insufficient justification effect by claiming that we explain our behavior by noting the conditions under which it occurs?

A) self-perception
B) self-presentation
C) role-playing
D) cognitive dissonance

Question 76

An example of the overjustification effect in the text describes how the number of books Myers' son read _____ after the local library provided an incentive for children to read 10 books in three months.

A) increased slightly
B) doubled
C) decreased
D) stabilized

Question 77

As a teenager, you enjoyed jogging. As a result, your parents purchased new running shoes for you after every major milestone (e.g., when you ran your first marathon). According to the self-perception theory, your parents' behavior is most likely to _____ your intrinsic motivation for jogging.

A) decreased
B) increased
C) downgrade
D) erode

Question 78

Which statement is NOT true according to the research findings on expressions and attitudes?

A) Our expressions influence our feelings.
B) Our gait can affect how we feel.
C) We find cartoons funnier while using our smile muscles.
D) We can't sense how someone else is feeling by mirroring their facial expressions.

Question 79

Dissonance theory explains attitude _____, whereas self-perception theory explains attitude _____.

A) consistency; change
B) change; consistency
C) formation; change
D) change; formation

Question 80

Rewarding people for doing what they already enjoy may lead them to attribute their action to the reward. If so, this would undermine their self-perception that they do it because they like it. This is called

A) cognitive dissonance.
B) deindividuation.
C) the overjustification effect.
D) the insufficient justification effect.