Deck 4: Personality

Question 1

Identify two important phases in the development of personalities. How do these phases interact with one another, and with the environment over time?

Answer 1

$\bullet$ All people begin with their genes, and these genes have evolved over millions of years. Evolutionary processes can produce commonalities among people (e.g. human abilities like spoken language), as well as differences (e.g. consistent costs and benefits of risky vs. conservative strategies).
$\bullet$ In fact, we can see the three levels of personality in genes. All humans share many genes (some of which are also shared with non-human animals)-these are universal. There are also gene variants that we share with some people, but not others.
$\bullet$ Collectively, many small genetic differences like this contribute to more substantial and observable individual differences, such as the trait of emotional stability. People are also completely unique in their particular combinations of gene variants-one's individual genome.
$\bullet$ When babies are born, they have temperamental features that developed via genes interacting with the pre-natal environment. Temperamental differences are apparent right away. For example, some newborns are fussy, and others are quieter. These very early temperamental features have links to adult personality; yet, there is still much development and growth that will occur, and thus, adult characteristics are not pre-determined at this early stage.
$\bullet$ Influences include the efforts of parents and how they respond the child's temperament, the random events that occur in everyone's life and the cultural regularities that each person encounters. As people have and seek out experiences, some characteristics are reinforced and others are changed.
$\bullet$ The norm is for continuity in personality from childhood to adulthood, but this does not preclude dramatic changes at times. Maturation also occurs. As children grow, new parts of personality develop.

Question 2

List and provide brief examples of the four ways that the Big five model can be accepted as a good map of personality.

Answer 2

$\bullet$ Wide applicability: At a broad level, the big five traits are found in most languages. People in diverse cultures understand the traits, and the correlations among questionnaire items are similar to those found in English. The Big five are even found in non-human animal species, with traits coded by human observers or caretakers (Gosling, 2008). However, only genetically close species, such as chimpanzees, seem to have all five traits.
$\bullet$ Heritability: The big five traits, like many personality characteristics, are moderately heritable (Bouchard & Loehlin, 2001). Genetic variation explains a substantial part of observed variation in traits; yet, this does not argue against the notion that development and experience are also important (see Chapter 3 for more on interpreting heritability).
$\bullet$ Stability: On average, trait scores are remarkably stable over time, with sizable correlations between measurements taken decades apart.
$\bullet$ Predictive power: Because traits are generally stable over long periods of time, we can use them to predict important life outcomes (Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006; Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, & Goldberg, 2007). Even when assessed years before, traits scores can indicate who is more likely to get and keep a good job, be happy, remain married or live a long and healthy life. For example, the traits of low conscientiousness, emotional stability and agreeableness predict divorce far better than low socioeconomic status; also, the big five traits (collectively) predict occupational status almost as well as general intelligence (Roberts et al., 2007). Especially relevant to positive psychology, extraversion and emotional stability are the best predictors of subjective well-being within a nation, even over long periods of time.

Question 3

What did Rusting (1999) conclude from her research on the cognitive processes behind introversion-extraversion and neuroticism? What does this research teach us about these personality traits and their implications?

Answer 3

$\bullet$ We see that these traits predicted (correlated with) how people performed on positive versus negative content in the task. Extraversion was associated with more positive and neuroticism with more negative interpretations and recall. It seems these traits are associated with some biases in thinking, beyond motivation and emotional experience per se.
$\bullet$ Extraverts seem more attuned to pleasure seeking. This makes them happier on average; yet, it can also get them into trouble at times (e.g. more accidents, drug abuse). In contrast, trait neuroticism reflects a sensitivity to threats and potential punishments. This can help keep people high in neuroticism safe, but with the costs of frequent anxiety and some missed opportunities

Question 4

______ refers to the individual, internal characteristics that produce regularities in thoughts, feelings and actions.

A) Motives
B) Personality
C) Values
D) Desires
E) Self-esteem

Question 5

The classic formulation by personality psychologists Kluckholn and Murray (1948) says that every person is in certain respects ______.

A) like all other people
B) like some other people
C) like no other person
D) All of these
E) None of these

Question 6

According to self-determination theory, all humans need ______.

A) competence, autonomy and relatedness
B) to be capable to master new things, to pursue individual and intrinsic desires freely and to feel connected and have good interpersonal relationships
C) a self-concept
D) both competence, autonomy and relatedness and to be capable to master new things, to pursue individual and intrinsic desires freely, and to feel connected and have good interpersonal relationships
E) Both competence, autonomy and relatedness and a self-concept

Question 7

The middle level of individual differences-or what makes people different than some other people -includes, for example, demographics, values, attitudes, attachment styles and ______.

A) traits
B) life stories
C) personal projects
D) idiosyncrasies

Question 8

If you describe someone as reliable, curious, and shy, you are talking about ______.

A) preferences
B) self-esteem
C) perceptions
D) judgements
E) traits

Question 9

The goal of correlating an immense list of trait terms with one another was to ______.

A) come up with a map of 'personality space'
B) identify key dimensions of human difference
C) prove that traits exist
D) both come up with a map of 'personality space' and identify key dimensions of human difference
E) both identify key dimensions of human difference and prove that traits exist

Question 10

All approaches to the study of traits came to a relative consensus on a model of personality traits called ______.

A) the Big five factor model
B) Myers Briggs type inventory
C) the VIA strengths model
D) self-determination theory
E) personality wheel of colour

Question 11

______ define broader traits more concretely.

A) Personality
B) Types
C) Values
D) Facets
E) Emotions

Question 12

Extraversion may result from ______.

A) more resilience to potential threats in the environment
B) less sensitivity to potential rewards in the environment
C) stronger sensitivity to potential rewards in the environment
D) less resilience to potential threats in the environment

Question 13

States can provide information about traits when ______.

A) measured at one point in time
B) they are observed multiple times to form a collection of behaviours
C) paired with strong emotions
D) paired with a clear goal

Question 14

Psychologists have used ______ to clarify the links between states and traits.

A) experience sampling method
B) signature strengths
C) Myers Briggs type inventory
D) differences among people

Question 15

______ are temporary and sensitive to the immediate context; they are short-term units.

A) Traits
B) Personalities
C) States
D) Goals

Question 16

______ are the things people want to accomplish.

A) Needs
B) Goals
C) Traits
D) Desires

Question 17

______ are seen as universally important, positive and useful, but they are also prone to individual and cultural differences.

A) Desires
B) The self-concept
C) Needs
D) Values

Question 18

Thinking that two things are the same because they share a name is known as ______.

A) the jangle fallacy
B) the jingle fallacy
C) the perception fallacy
D) the Big five fallacy
E) None of these

Question 19

The 'manual of the sanities' crafted by positive psychologists was created ______.

A) based on Aristotle's notion of eudaimonia
B) to list the ways that people thrive and excel
C) to list things that are good about human nature
D) to list people's strengths
E) All of these

Question 20

The VIA classification of virtues and character strengths include ______.

A) wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance and transcendence
B) agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness and introversion-extraversion
C) sensation, intuition, perception and judgement
D) positive emotions, happiness, well-being and relationships