Deck 4: Cicero

Question 1

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims that moral rightness and expedience can never conflict with one another. What does he mean by this, and how does he argue for it? Do you think this view is correct? If so, why? If not, can you think of any counterexamples?

Answer 1

No Answer

Question 2

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Describe the story of the ring of Gyges. What conclusions does Cicero draw about the story? Do you agree with his assessment?

Answer 2

No Answer

Question 3

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-What is it for an action to be morally right, on Cicero's view? Contrast Cicero's view with another theory about the foundations of ethics. Which view do you think is more plausible and why?

Answer 3

No Answer

Question 4

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Write an essay describing the four virtues that Cicero argues are the sources of our moral duties. Describe each virtue and give an example of what kind of behavior would arise from it. Do you think that all four of these are genuine virtues? Do you think there are any important virtues that Cicero fails to consider?

Question 5

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-What are the four sources of an action being morally right, according to Cicero? Describe each source. Do you think these four sources can account for all of our obligations? Why or why not?

Question 6

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-What does Cicero mean by expedience? What sorts of activities does he think are expedient and why? Do you find his views on this matter plausible?

Question 7

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-What does Cicero think is the relationship between moral rightness and expedience? How does he argue for this view? Are his arguments compelling? Defend your answer.

Question 8

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, moral rightness is concerned with:

A) the conservation of organized society.
B) moderation and self-control.
C) the perception and intelligent perception of truth.
D) all of the above.

Question 9

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims that acts of injustice are usually motivated by:

A) envy.
B) avarice.
C) anger.
D) desperation.

Question 10

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero argues that we will never go morally astray if we:

A) follow our conscience.
B) follow the laws.
C) follow religious edicts.
D) follow Nature as our guide.

Question 11

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims that when we act:

A) reason should command, and appetite should obey.
B) reason can be nothing but a slave of the passions.
C) we should be guided sometimes by reason, and sometimes by passion.
D) we should be guided by neither reason nor passion.

Question 12

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-In Cicero's view, acts of kindness should be:

A) proportioned to the worthiness of the recipient.
B) proportioned to the need of the recipient
C) both a and b.
D) neither a nor b.

Question 13

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, there is nothing so proper as:

A) loving one's country.
B) enjoying one's work.
C) maintaining consistency in every act.
D) acting on our ideals.

Question 14

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims that there could be "no more pernicious doctrine" than the idea that:

A) the gods do not care what we do.
B) a thing may be expedient without being morally right.
C) moral rightness is relative to one's culture.
D) it is sometimes permissible to lie.

Question 15

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-By "expedient," Cicero means:

A) conducive to enjoyment and wealth.
B) unprincipled.
C) required by duty.
D) quick and efficient.

Question 16

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, it is expedient to be:

A) just.
B) generous.
C) kind.
D) all of the above.

Question 17

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims that our moral obligations are ultimately grounded in:

A) God's commands.
B) self-interest.
C) the laws of Nature.
D) social agreements.

Question 18

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, immorality is __________, and expediency is __________.

A) repugnant to Nature; repugnant to Nature.
B) repugnant to Nature; in accord with Nature.
C) in accord with Nature; repugnant to Nature.
D) in accord with Nature; in accord with Nature.

Question 19

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, the heaviest penalty of all is:

A) death.
B) torture.
C) ostracism.
D) demoralization.

Question 20

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-To illustrate the attempt to do injustice with impunity, Cicero considers the story of:

A) the ring of Gyges.
B) Icarus.
C) Achilles and Agamemnon.
D) Oedipus the King.

Question 21

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, any defect known to the vender must be:

A) made known to the state.
B) paid for.
C) kept to from the purchaser.
D) made known to the purchaser

Question 22

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims that it is sometimes permissible to:

A) commit acts of injustice.
B) break one's promises.
C) steal.
D) none of the above.

Question 23

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, nature sometimes leads us astray.

Question 24

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, the study of moral duties is important but limited in its practical application.

Question 25

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims that we should follow both the universal laws of human nature and the bent of our particular nature.

Question 26

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-In Cicero's view, the duties of the young are exactly the same as the duties of the old.

Question 27

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, nothing can be expedient without being morally right.

Question 28

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims that what is just is always expedient.

Question 29

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-According to Cicero, good men do not weigh considerations of moral rightness against considerations of expedience.

Question 30

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims that expedience is repugnant to Nature.

Question 31

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-In Cicero's view, it is immoral to even consider an action that one knows to be a crime.

Question 32

Cicero: On Duties
Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper.
In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right.
-Cicero claims good men would do unjust acts if they could be sure they would not be punished.