Deck 9: Joseph Butler

Question 1

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Write an essay comparing and contrasting Butler's view of human nature with that of Hobbes. Explain each view, taking note of their similarities and differences. Which do you think is closer to the truth, and why?

Answer 1

No Answer

Question 2

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Explain Butler's account of virtue and vice. What is it to act according to nature, on his view, and what relationship does he see between acting naturally and acting virtuously? Is Butler's theory satisfactory? Why or why not?

Answer 2

No Answer

Question 3

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-According to Butler, it is wrong or contrary to moral law to seek revenge or retaliate against our enemies. What is Butler's argument for this claim? Is his argument convincing? Why or why not?

Answer 3

No Answer

Question 4

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-What different interpretations of the scriptural command to "love your neighbor as yourself" does Butler discuss? Which does he decide is the correct interpretation, and why? What implications does this principle have for our actions, according to Butler?

Question 5

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-What is human nature according to Butler? From what principles do our actions arise? For what end are we naturally designed? Do you find his account of human nature plausible? Why or why not?

Question 6

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-What does it mean to act according to nature, in Butler's view? Is it always desirable to act naturally in this sense? Defend your answer.

Question 7

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-According to Butler, what is the relationship between benevolence and self-love? How does he argue for his view of the matter? Do you agree with him?
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Question 8

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-According to the scripture that Butler discusses in Sermon One, human beings are:

A) independent and autonomous individuals.
B) all a part of one body.
C) all a part of God.
D) part of the animal kingdom.

Question 9

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler argues that the pursuit of public goods and the pursuit of private goods:

A) are in constant conflict with one another.
B) are independent and neither promote one another nor conflict.
C) mutually promote one another.
D) are completely unimportant compared with the pursuit of divine goods.

Question 10

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-According to Butler, it is impossible to:

A) approve of the actions of others without imitating them.
B) do something of which one does not oneself approve.
C) be motivated by genuine benevolence.
D) do that which is good and not to approve of it.

Question 11

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims disgrace is avoided as much as:

A) injustice.
B) cowardice.
C) bodily pain.
D) sin.

Question 12

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-In Butler's view, injustice is caused by:

A) desires for external goods.
B) love of injustice.
C) ill-will toward others.
D) self-hatred.

Question 13

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler argues that our happiness consists in:

A) the satisfaction of our particular appetites and affections.
B) the satisfaction of our appetite of self-love.
C) pure altruism.
D) the absence of desire.

Question 14

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims that in the strictest and most proper sense, to follow nature is to:

A) act as one pleases.
B) act on any of one's passions.
C) act on one's strongest passion.
D) act on one's conscience.

Question 15

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-According to Butler, all of our various passions are naturally subordinate to:

A) conscience.
B) the desire for self-preservation.
C) reason.
D) love of God.

Question 16

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler argues that loving our enemies requires:

A) never resenting them.
B) never retaliating against them.
C) never causing them pain.
D) all of the above.

Question 17

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims that we often exaggerate or misunderstand our injuries because of:

A) anger and self-love.
B) jealously.
C) the pain the injuries cause.
D) none of the above.

Question 18

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler argues that the belief that there is a conflict between public goods and private goods arises from our notions of:

A) justice.
B) benevolence.
C) property.
D) charity.

Question 19

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims that the commandment to "love thy neighbor as thyself" is:

A) counterproductive.
B) of little moral importance.
C) one of many equally important moral duties.
D) the most important moral duty.

Question 20

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-According to Butler, the selfish theory fails to distinguish between:

A) an acts being evil, with the acts being good.
B) an acts being good, with the object of my acts being good.
C) an acts being mine, with the object of my acts.
D) an acts being mine, with the object of my acts being good.

Question 21

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims that if we were to feel an equal amount of affection for others as we feel for ourselves, our actions would:

A) display more regard for ourselves than for others.
B) display the same regard for ourselves as for others.
C) display more regard for others than for ourselves.
D) display no regard for either our others or ourselves.

Question 22

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims that, strictly speaking, the only thing that anyone has a right to is:

A) life.
B) liberty.
C) property.
D) happiness.

Question 23

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims that the passions of human beings primarily lead us to do evil deeds.

Question 24

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-According to Butler, people often fail to live up to their nature because of the pursuit of present gratification.

Question 25

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-In Butler's view, acting naturally is simply acting on one's strongest inclination.

Question 26

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims that the principles of passion and of cool self-love differ not only in degree, but also in kind.

Question 27

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-According to Butler, no one does unprovoked mischief to another for its own sake.

Question 28

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims that every human being is a law to himself.

Question 29

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler argues that reason, passion, and appetite are principles with equal strength.

Question 30

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-The percept to love and forgive those who injure us forbids feeling indignation and resentment toward them.

Question 31

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-According to Butler, there is no incompatibility between self-love and benevolence.

Question 32

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-Butler claims that nothing can be of consequence to mankind, or any creature, but happiness.