Deck 2: Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Question 1

The propensity to resolve discrepancies between pre-existing schemas and new information in the direction of assimilation rather than accommodation, even at the expense of distorting the information itself is called:

A) post-hoc error
B) accommodation error
C) bidirectional causation
D) Barnum effect
E) assimilation bias

Answer 1

E

Question 2

Any variable that can be placed into either of two discrete and mutually exclusive categories is called:

A) continuous
B) dependent
C) dichotomous
D) independent
E) uncertainty avoidance

Answer 2

C

Question 3

The ________ is a logical error that because Event B follows Event A, then B must have been caused by A.

A) self-fulfilling prophecy
B) dichotomous variable
C) the Barnum effect
D) the fundamental attribution error
E) the post hoc error

Answer 3

E

Question 4

_______ is the act of thinking about thinking; engaging in a critical analysis and evaluation of the thinking process.

A) post-hoc error
B) metathinking
C) bidirectional causation
D) Barnum effect
E) assimilation bias

Question 5

The term for any generic description or interpretation about a particular individual that is true of practically all individuals or groups is known as a(n):

A) the fundamental attribution error
B) standup comedy
C) ethnic joke
D) Barnum statement
E) post-hoc error

Question 6

A phenomenon wherein people's attitudes, beliefs or assumptions about another person (or persons) can, with or without their intent, actually produce the very behaviors that they had initially expected to find is called:

A) self-fulfilling prophecy
B) dichotomous variable
C) the continuous variable
D) the fundamental attribution error
E) the post hoc error

Question 7

Any condition where the availability heuristic produces systematic errors in thinking or
Information processing, typically due to highly vivid (dramatic) although rare (extraordinary) events is called:

A) Barnum effect
B) continuous variable
C) availability bias
D) post-hoc error
E) the fundamental attribution error

Question 8

The ____________ is a bias in attempting to determine the causes of people's behavior that involves overestimating the influence of their personality traits, while underestimating the influence of their particular situations.

A) self-fulfilling prophecy
B) dichotomous variable
C) the Barnum effect
D) the fundamental attribution error
E) the post hoc error

Question 9

A(n)_________ is a strategy for problem solving that reduces complex information and time-consuming tasks to more simple, rapid, and efficient judgmental operations, particularly in reaching decisions under conditions of uncertainty.

A) heuristic
B) continuous variable
C) availability bias
D) dichotomous variable
E) uncertainty avoidance

Question 10

A cognitive strategy for quickly estimating the frequency, incidence, or probability of a given event based on the ease with which such instances are retrievable from memory is called:

A) availability heuristic
B) post-hoc error
C) bidirectional causation
D) accommodation error
E) the fundamental attribution error

Question 11

Any systematic error in attribution that derives from people's efforts to satisfy their own personal needs, such as the desire for approval by others, high self-esteem, power or prestige is called:

A) intellectual hunger
B) paradoxical reasoning
C) parataxic thinking
D) motivational bias
E) post-hoc error

Question 12

A kind of "magical thinking," frequently responsible for superstitious behaviors, in which events that occur close together in time are erroneously construed by a person to be causally linked is called:

A) Barnum effect
B) parataxic reasoning
C) dichotomous variable
D) uncertainty avoidance
E) self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 13

What is the Representativeness heuristic?

A) any generic, "one-size-fits-all" description or interpretation about a particular individual
B) deliberate lying about self
C) the logical error that because Event B follows Event A, then B must have been caused by A
D) a systematic error in attribution that derives from people's efforts to satisfy their own personal needs, such as the desire for self-esteem, power or prestige
E) a cognitive strategy for quickly estimating the probability that a given instance is a member of a particular category.

Question 14

Which of the following is an example of a Barnum statement?

A) The halftime show during the final game received more attention than the game itself
B) Sometimes female immigrants feel insecure.
C) The weather in New York was very humid this week
D) Iran has a resilient soccer team this year
E) Australian beaches are not very crowded this winter

Question 15

Which one of the following is an example of the Fundamental Attribution Error?

A) Russia has a high rate of violent crime because of the country's tough laws.
B) Russia has a high rate of violent crime due to poverty and cold weather.
C) Russia has a high rate of violent crime as a result of numerous factors.
D) Russia has a high rate of violent crime because Russians are violent.
E) Russia has a high rate of violent crime due to problems in their educational system.

Question 16

Which of the following statements most accurately describes the Belief Perseverance Effect?

A) We defend our property no matter what is going on around us.
B) We defend our opinions in spite of arguments that challenge them.
C) We alter our opinions when we are facing strong arguments.
D) We defend our opinions only when we are scared.
E) We defend the opinions of others when we feel they are friendly.

Question 17

Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the Evaluative Bias of Language?

A) People often use language to achieve own selfish goals
B) People value their own language and refuse to learn others
C) Descriptions become prescriptions
D) Descriptions are made without serious thought
E) Language is used to make evaluations about a person's intellectual potential

Question 18

Jane is a Canadian citizen. She is kind, goal-oriented, knowledgeable in literature, outgoing and musically inclined. Which of these characteristics would be considered a dichotomous variable?

A) her nationality
B) her kindness
C) her emotional stability
D) her social behavior
E) her musical skills

Question 19

Lee has earned an undergraduate degree in biology. He is motivated to become a doctor. He has ascertained three letters of recommendation from his professors and has applied to medical school. He has not yet proposed to his girlfriend. Which of these characteristics referring to Lee is a continuous variable?

A) his college degree
B) his school application
C) his letters of support
D) his motivation
E) his status as a fiancée

Question 20

De-Barnumize the following statement: "Russians are sensitive to criticism."

A) Russians are insensitive to criticism.
B) Russians are extremely sensitive to criticism but insensitive to other people's problems
C) Russians are insensitive to criticism but sensitive to other people's problems
D) Russians have an appreciation for nature and respect their ancestors
E) Russians, in particular situations, become more sensitive to criticism than other groups

Question 21

What is the name of the process (described by Jean Piaget) by which we change our existing beliefs and accept new information?

A) assimilation
B) accommodation
C) both assimilation and accommodation
D) fundamental attribution error
E) metathinking

Question 22

While traveling in a foreign country you are approached by a group of strangers and have to quickly surmise their intentions. You will likely use a set of quick and simple mental shortcuts to accomplish this task. These shortcuts are called:

A) fundamental attribution error
B) metathinking
C) uncertainty avoidance
D) heuristics
E) self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 23

Why was the fundamental attribution error labeled, "fundamental" by Lee Ross?

A) because this cognitive error is very common
B) because people worry about money and funds before taking a job
C) because people are fundamentally unhappy
D) because people are fundamentally happy
E) because it emphasizes that these errors are "found" and they are "mental"

Question 24

Sana is a Canadian citizen, female, math major, extraverted, open-mined, strong, quick, anxious, and with some attention problems. In such a list of her "features" find a dichotomous variable:

A) Sana's anxiety
B) Sana's attention problems
C) Sana' strength
D) Sana's temperament
E) Sana's nationality

Question 25

Which one of these statements represents the Fundamental Attribution Error of judgment?

A) Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because the weak criminal justice system.
B) Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because of poverty and lack or order.
C) Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because of numerous factors.
D) Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because Russians are violent people.
E) Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because the problems in their educational
System and the lack of positive family influence.

Question 26

Masculinity and femininity are examples of continuous variables.

Question 27

The term unidirectional causation refers to a relationship between two variables wherein one is the cause and the other is the effect.

Question 28

A motivational bias is any systematic error in attribution that derives from limits inherent in people's cognitive abilities to process information.

Question 29

A continuous variable is one that lies along a dimension, range or spectrum, rather than in a discrete category, that can theoretically take on an infinite number of values and is expressed in terms of quantity, magnitude or degree.

Question 30

The following is an example of parataxic reasoning: A basketball player listens to his favorite song before a game. His team wins. He concludes that the song contributed to the tesm's success.

Question 31

When engaging the belief perseverance effect, an individual readily accepts information that contradicts their preexisting beliefs.

Question 32

The following statement reflects thinking that is consistent with the naturalistic fallacy. "What is typical is normal and what is normal is good."

Question 33

A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when people's expectations actually produce the behaviors they expected to find.

Question 34

Lee has the tendency to cling stubbornly to his beliefs in supernatural powers, even in the face of contradictory or disconfirming evidence. By doing so, Lee is engaging in the belief perseverance effect.

Question 35

The Barnum effect refers to people's rejection or reluctance to accept uncritically the validity of Barnum statements.

Question 36

In Great Britain, different indicators of happiness haven't changed much for 40 years despite economic ups and downs.

Question 37

Dichotomous variables involve classification (quality), while continuous variables involve______.

Question 38

Someone who suggests "most people eat meat therefore vegetarians-who do not eat meat- are abnormal" are engaging in what type of fallacy?

Question 39

A friend reasons that because (according to his assumption) all Asians like spicy food, his Korean neighbor must like it as well. What cognitive strategy did he use when estimating this probability?

Question 40

Research reveals that a person's confidence is often the result of success. However, it also demonstrates that success is the result of confidence. This is an example of what type of causation?

Question 41

Tanya concludes that whenever she wears a red dress she receives a call from her parents. She decides to wear a blue dress tonight to avoid a phone call from home. What is the name of the type of "magical thinking" that Tanya is engaging in?

Question 42

Joe recently lost his job and cannot find a new one. His friends and family have noticed that he has been agitated and temperamental. Due to the fundamental attribution error his friends any family are likely to conclude that his moodiness is the result of _________ rather than external stressors.

Question 43

What is the name for a variable that can be placed into either of two mutually exclusive categories?

Question 44

The statement "She has self-respect issues" is a typical one-size-fits-all statement that is referred to in the text as____________.

Question 45

A friend who explains, "I have firm beliefs and refuse to accept information that contradicts them" is engaging in what type of bias?

Question 46

Amanda gets extremely anxious before exams and tells herself that she will not pass. She often says, "I am an exchange student. I speak the language poorly." Although she masters the information while studying, her anxiety prevents her from expressing her ideas clearly during the exam. She scores poorly. This is an example of a_________

Question 47

Provide three examples of dichotomous variables related to human behavior. Explain these examples.

Question 48

Why would an individual's religious beliefs be considered a continuous variable?

Question 49

Provide an example of a relationship between two variables that would be considered bi-directional. Explain this example.

Question 50

In your own words, define cognitive schema and give an example.

Question 51

Define and provide an original (own) example of parataxic reasoning.

Question 52

"Immigrants look for a better life". Explain why this sentence is considered a Barnum Statement.

Question 53

Suggest an example of the Barnum effect's influence on people's judgments.

Question 54

Explain the meaning of the Availability Bias in people's judgments (use cases provided by the mass media to draw your examples).

Question 55

What are the key differences between cognitive and motivational biases in people's judgments?

Question 56

Give an example of Self-Fulfilling Prophesy using your personal experience. Explain this example.

Question 57

The propensity to resolve discrepancies between pre-existing schemas and new information in the direction of assimilation rather than accommodation, even at the expense of distorting the information itself is called _________________.

A) post-hoc error
B) accommodation error
C) bidirectional causation
D) Barnum effect
E) assimilation bias

Question 58

Any variable that can be placed into either of two discrete and mutually exclusive categories is called _________.

A) continuous
B) dependent
C) dichotomous
D) independent
E) uncertainty avoidance

Question 59

Manal is a national of Egypt. She is kind, goal-oriented, knowledgeable, outgoing and musically inclined. Which of these characteristics would be considered a dichotomous variable?

A) her nationality
B) her kindness
C) her emotional stability
D) her social behavior
E) her musical skills

Question 60

Jose has earned an undergraduate degree in biology. He is motivated to become a doctor. He has ascertained three letters of recommendation from his professors and has applied to medical school. He has not yet proposed to his girlfriend. Which of these characteristics referring to Jose is a continuous variable?

A) his college degree
B) his school application
C) his letters of support
D) his motivation
E) his status as a fiancée

Question 61

De-Barnumize the following statement: "Russians are sensitive to criticism".

A) Russians are insensitive to criticism.
B) Russians are extremely sensitive to criticism but insensitive to other people's problems
C) Russians are insensitive to criticism but sensitive to other people's problems
D) Russians have an appreciation for nature and respect their ancestors
E) Russians, in particular situations, become more sensitive to criticism than other groups

Question 62

A motivational bias is any systematic error in attribution that derives from limits inherent in people's cognitive abilities to process information.

Question 63

A continuous variable is one that lies along a dimension, range, or spectrum that can theoretically take on an infinite number of values and is expressed in terms of quantity, magnitude or degree, rather than in a discrete category.

Question 64

In Great Britain, different indicators of happiness haven't changed much for 40 years despite economic ups and downs.

Question 65

Tara thinks that, whenever she wears a blue T-shirt, she receives a low score on her test. She decides to wear a white T-shirt for her next test to earn a higher score. Name and explain the type of "magical thinking" in which Tara is engaged.

Question 66

Joe recently lost his job and cannot find a new one. His friends and family have noticed that he has been agitated and temperamental. Due to the fundamental attribution error, his friends and family are likely to conclude that his moodiness is the result of _________ rather than external stressors.