Deck 6: Causal Designs

Question 1

Which of the following statements about the scientific notion of causality and the common sense notion of causality is true?

A) The scientific notion suggests there is a single cause of an event while the common sense notion suggests there are a number of causes of an event.
B) The common sense notion implies a completely deterministic relationship while the scientific notion implies a probabilistic relationship.
C) Both the common sense notion and the scientific notion recognize that we can never prove that a relationship exists.
D) There is no difference between the scientific notion of causality and the common sense notion.
E) The empirical evidence is most consistent with the common sense notion.

Answer 1

The common sense notion implies a completely deterministic relationship while the scientific notion implies a probabilistic relationship.

Question 2

The scientific and common sense notions of causality differ in the following way:

A) one of the notions holds that a researcher can discover a single cause of an event.
B) one of the notions implies a completely deterministic relationship between a cause and an effect.
C) one of the notions implies that a researcher can always infer, but never prove that a relationship exists.
D) a and c.
E) all of the above are differences.

Answer 2

all of the above are differences.

Question 3

Which of the following is FALSE?

A) The scientific notion of causality differs from the common sense notion in that the common sense notion suggests that X (the cause) always leads to Y (the effect).
B) The common sense notion of causality implies a completely deterministic relationship while the scientific notion implies a probabilistic relationship.
C) The scientific notion of causality rests upon the belief that we can only prove that X (the cause) leads to Y (the effect) in an experiment.
D) b and c.
E) They are all true.

Answer 3

The scientific notion of causality rests upon the belief that we can only prove that X (the cause) leads to Y (the effect) in an experiment.

Question 4

The major kind of evidence regarding causality that can be supplied through a descriptive research design is

A) elimination of other possible causal factors.
B) time order of occurrence of variables.
C) concomitant variation.
D) a and c.
E) none of the above.

Question 5

Which of the following statements concerning causation and association is true?

A) If association is found, it means that one variable clearly causes the other.
B) Absence of association implies the absence of causality.
C) Causation can be clearly established by experimental as well as descriptive studies.
D) Causation requires association.
E) All the statements are false.

Question 6

It is true that when using concomitant variation as evidence of a causal relationship between two variables

A) the technique can only be applied with quantitative variables.
B) we are looking for a one-to-one correspondence between the two variables and this is usually found.
C) when evidence of concomitant variation is found, the hypothesis is proved.
D) the absence of initial evidence of concomitant variation implies that there is no causation between the two variables.
E) there may be no causal relationship between variables even though there is initial evidence of concomitant variation.

Question 7

Which of the following is TRUE of concomitant variation?

A) Concomitant variation is a measure of the extent to which two variables vary together.
B) The "pure" case of concomitant variation is found in 20-30 percent of all causal research studies.
C) If perfect concomitant variation is found, we can say that our hypothesis is proven.
D) If there is no evidence of concomitant variation in a two-way cross-classification table, we can be sure that there is no causal relationship.
E) They are all false.

Question 8

Which of the following is TRUE?

A) Cross-classification tables are useful in proving cause and effect relationships.
B) The presence of association in a cross-classification table demonstrates conclusively that X and Y are related in the real world.
C) A causal factor must occur before the effect or event it causes.
D) When considering the time order of occurrence of variables as evidence, each term in the relationship must be either a cause or an effect. They cannot be both.
E) They are all false.

Question 9

When using the time order of occurrence of variables as evidence of a causal relationship between two variables

A) it is possible for each term in the relationship to be both a "cause" and an effect of the other term.
B) the occurrence of a causal factor must follow the occurrence of the event.
C) it is fairly easy for the researcher to understand the time sequence governing a phenomenon.
D) an effect can be produced by an event that occurs after the effect has taken place.
E) a relationship between the two variables can be proved.

Question 10

Which of the following does not affect consumer's responses to test products?

A) knowledge of the product's manufacturer
B) the use of brand names on the product
C) the use of the letters A,M, and Z on three products
D) a and b
E) All of the above will affect consumer responses.

Question 11

In a controlled experiment

A)all other explanations for the effect have been eliminated.
B)we can conclusively prove relationships.
C)only replication will increase our confidence in the resulting conclusions.
D)we substitute method knowledge for conceptual knowledge.
E)a and b are true.

Question 12

When conducting ex post facto research, the investigator first

A) manipulates the independent variable under carefully controlled conditions.
B) executes a turnover analysis.
C) attempts to find one or more causal variables.
D) tries to supply evidence of the time order of occurrence of variables.
E) observes the criterion variable.

Question 13

The type of study design that affords the researcher the most control is

A) a descriptive design.
B) an exploratory design.
C) a field experiment.
D) a sample survey.
E) a laboratory experiment.

Question 14

A laboratory experiment

A) is more internally valid than a field experiment.
B) affords the researcher greater control.
C) better eliminates confounding factors.
D) b and c only.
E) all of the above.

Question 15

According to the terminology of an experimental design,

A) O refers to the observation of the test unit(s).
B) movement through time is represented by the vertical arrangement of X's and O's.
C) O, X, O₂ indicates that one or more test units were exposed to an experimental variable and that their response was measured at two different points in time.
D) a and c.
E) a, b, and c.

Question 16

Which of the following statements is TRUE of the extraneous variable, history?

A) Its effects on a research conclusion are often subtle.
B) Its effects are eliminated in a laboratory experiment.
C) It refers to events external to the experiment which occurred before or during the experiment.
D) a and c.
E) all of the above are true of the history effect.

Question 17

Which of the following statements is true?

A) The one-group pretest-posttest design is an example of a true experimental design.
B) In an experiment with a large sample, it is safe to assume that the people who did not respond were equal to the people who did.
C) History primarily jeopardizes the internal validity of marketing experiments.
D) The use of randomization to eliminate selection bias in experimental designs works best when the groups being compared are small.
E) None of the above is true.

Question 18

Maturation

A) refers to the changes occurring within the test units that are due to the impact of the experimental variable.
B) refers to events external to the test units.
C) is limited to test units composed of people.
D) does not depend on the timing of the specific experiment.
E) refers to the processes operating within the test units as a function of time per se.

Question 19

Which of the following is not an example of the testing effect?

A) Students take a test and score 84; two weeks later they take a different test and score 90.
B) A person is asked about her attitudes toward Ford automobiles; she then watches Ford commercials more closely than before.
C) After Dan is asked to be on a consumer panel that reports purchasing behavior, he changes his purchasing behavior.
D) While answering a questionnaire, Dawn tries to answer the last questions consistent with how she answered the first questions.
E) a through d are all examples of the testing effect.

Question 20

History effects

A) refer to specific events that occur prior to the experiment that may affect respondent's attitudes.
B) on a research conclusion are usually obvious.
C) primarily jeopardize the internal validity of a marketing experiment.
D) refer to changes occurring within the test units that are not due to the impact of the experimental variable, but result from the passage of time.
E) c and d.

Question 21

Which of the following about testing effects is FALSE?

A) The main testing effect is the effect of a prior observation on a later observation.
B) The interactive testing effect is exhibited when subjects who are asked about their attitudes on national security become much less sensitive to defense spending promotional campaigns.
C) The main testing effect is exhibited when subjects who are asked about their smoking habits on two separate occasions respond so as to be consistent.
D) The main testing effect usually exerts its greatest impact on the internal validity of an experiment, while the interactive testing effect most typically affects the external validity of a conclusion.
E) As long as there is a before measurement, there can be no testing effect.

Question 22

Which of the following is TRUE?

A) When it is not possible to go back after an experiment and determine if the experimental and control groups were equal before the fact, selection bias may be present in the experiment.
B) Matching is the preferred procedure to ensure equality of comparison groups.
C) To avoid selection bias, the general principle is: select subjects at random and then arbitrarily assign subjects to groups.
D) The use of randomization to eliminate selection bias in experimental designs works best when the groups being compared are small.
E) They are all false.

Question 23

Students taking an achievement test for the second time usually do better than those taking the test for the first time. This is an example of the

A) history effect.
B) maturation effect.
C) interactive testing effect.
D) main testing effect.
E) selection bias effect.

Question 24

The fact that a person, as a member of a consumer panel that reports purchasing behavior, may change his or her REPORTED purchasing behavior but not his or her ACTUAL behavior is an example of the

A) main testing effect.
B) interactive testing effect.
C) maturation effect.
D) experimental mortality effect.
E) history effect.

Question 25

Which of the following is TRUE of testing effects?

A) Mortality effects refer to the deaths of subjects during hazardous experiments using electronic devices.
B) Maturation effects can only be measured in test units composed of people.
C) Experiments lasting more than two hours are likely to suffer from history effects.
D) a and b.
E) They are all false.

Question 26

The extraneous variable, instrument variation

A) does not result from variation in administration of the interview.
B) can be acute when there are multiple observers or interviewers.
C) is not attributed to the way with which the interviewer handles the assignment.
D) does not occur if a minor modification is made, such as a slight change in the wording of a specific question so as to make it more understandable without changing its meaning.
E) does not occur with interviews conducted by the same interviewer.

Question 27

The tendency of extreme cases of the phenomenon to deviate toward a more central position during the course of an experiment refers to

A) statistical regression.
B) turnover analysis.
C) instrument variation.
D) the main testing effect.
E) selection bias.

Question 28

A researcher investigating the impact of television advertising on consumer attitudes toward Brand X compared the attitudes of a sample of respondents who did not watch the ABC Sunday Night Movie (one of the sponsors of which was Brand X) against those who did. This is an example of

A) statistical regression.
B) history.
C) the interactive testing effect.
D) selection bias.
E) the main testing effect.

Question 29

If there is no way of certifying that groups of test units were equivalent at some prior time, this is said to be evidence of

A) statistical regression.
B) concomitant variation.
C) selection bias.
D) the interactive testing effect.
E) instrument variation.

Question 30

What are the two main ways in which the prior equality of comparison groups is established?

A) randomization and statistical regression
B) matching and turnover analysis
C) turnover analysis and cross-sectional analysis
D) matching and randomization
E) longitudinal analysis and cross-sectional analysis

Question 31

If there are two groups at issue, an experimental and a control group, and the experimenter considers two test units as a pair by means of some external criterion before assigning one unit randomly from each pair to each group, he is said to be using

A) Cross-sectional analysis.
B) turnover analysis.
C) time order of occurrence of variables.
D) statistical regression.
E) matching.

Question 32

In general, matching is the preferred procedure in assuring the prior equality of comparison groups in an experiment because

A) it is easy to match test units on almost any characteristic.
B) matched test units are equal on most important variables.
C) matching is cheaper.
D) matching takes less time.
E) matching is not preferred.

Question 33

If a subject forgets to show up to the second observation time period, the research project has experienced

A) selection bias.
B) experimental mortality.
C) maturation.
D) subject variation.
E) b and c.

Question 34

The most acute problem with extraneous sources of variation is that

A) they are next to impossible to eliminate or adjust the results for.
B) they do not allow the experimenter to conclude that the observed response was due to experimental manipulations.
C) we do not know whether or not they have operated.
D) they always work in a negative direction.
E) they can only be eliminated by randomization and matching

Question 35

The three common types of experimental designs are

A) Pre-experimental; true experimental; and post-experimental.
B) True-experimental; post-experimental; quasi-experimental.
C) True-experimental; quasi-experimental; regular experimental.
D) Quasi-experimental; true-experimental; pre-experimental.
E) Quasi-experimental; pre-experimental; regular experimental.

Question 36

Which of the following is TRUE?

A) In an experiment it is safe to assume that the people who did not respond were equal to the people who did.
B) The ability to control who will be exposed to the treatment variable is a feature that distinguishes true experiments from quasi-experiments.
C) True experimental designs eliminate all doubts in interpreting the results of the research.
D) b and c.
E) They are all false.

Question 37

A single group of test units is exposed to an experimental variable and then is observed once for their response. This is what type of study?

A) a one group pretest-posttest study
B) a post-experimental study
C) a static group comparison
D) a one-shot case study
E) a longitudinal study

Question 38

The one-group pretest-posttest design

A) can be diagrammed: X 0₁ 0₂.
B) results from the addition of a pretest to the one-shot case study design.
C) is a type of quasi-experimental mortality.
D) controls for history.
E) can be used to measure the effectiveness of the experimental variable through the calculation d = 0₁ - 0₂.

Question 39

The difference, 0₂ - 0₁, in the one group pretest-posttest design is a measure of

A) E + U.
B) E + U + I.
C) U + I.
D) only I.
E) none of the above.

Question 40

A key feature of the static-group comparison is that

A) the groups have not been created by randomization.
B) the effectiveness can be measured by the equation, d=0₂ - 0₁.
C) extraneous error is eliminated.
D) its data is more valid than data from any other quasi-experimental design.
E) its results can be generalized to the larger population.

Question 41

Static group comparison

A) describes a design in which there are two groups created by randomization and where one group has experienced X and the other group has not.
B) designs contain groups that have not been created by randomization.
C) involves measuring the difference in the attitudes of the two groups by the same equation as the difference in a one-group pretest-posttest design, that is O₂ - O₁.
D) a and b.
E) a, b, and c.

Question 42

The main sources of error in a static-group comparison are

A) history and selection bias.
B) main testing effect.
C) selection bias and experimental mortality.
D) experimental mortality and history.
E) none of the above.

Question 43

In a before-after with control group design

A)the experimenter can arbitrarily assign test units to the experimental and control groups once they are randomly selected from the population.
B)the error due to extraneous factors can be measured by O4 - O3.
C)the main testing effect operates, making the design a less than ideal experimental procedure.
D)it is possible to estimate the size of the interactive testing effect.
E)They are all false.

Question 44

Which of the following is TRUE?

A)Random assignment of the test units to the experimental and control groups is the feature that distinguishes the after-only with control group design from the static group comparison.
B)One of the advantages of the after-only with control group is that there is no chance for an interactive testing effect.
C)The after-only with control group design is particularly vulnerable to selection bias, and where random assignment is not possible, it remains suspect.
D)The after-only with control group design is particularly susceptible to problems of experimental mortality.
E)They are all true.

Question 45

The factor that makes the data from true experimental designs more valid than data from any pre-experimental designs is

A) matching.
B) randomization.
C) the absence of extraneous sources of error.
D) the fact that the results can always be generalized to the larger population.
E) the fact that each of the test units is measured before and after the introduction of the experimental stimulus.

Question 46

The before-after with control group fell out of favor when it was discovered that it didn't control for

A) the main testing effect.
B) the interactive testing effect.
C) any extraneous factors.
D) the effect of the experimental treatment.
E) none of the above.

Question 47

Among the requirements imposed on the researcher using the before-after design with control group is the requirement that

A) the experimenter can arbitrarily assign test units to the experimental and control groups.
B) he will have to estimate the impact of history by means external to the experiment.
C) it is up to the test unit to self-select whether it will be a member of the control or experimental group.
D) each of the test units in both groups is measured before and after the introduction of the experimental stimulus to the experimental group.
E) the experimenter has to make an estimate of what the prior measurements should be.

Question 48

Consider the following design and assume no interactive testing effect is present:
(R) 0₁ X $\quad$ 0₂
(R) 0₃ $\quad$ 0₄
The difference represented by (0₂ - 0₁) - (0₄ - 0₃) estimates the EFFECT of

A) history.
B) maturation.
C) history, maturation and all other relevant sources jeopardizing internal validity.
D) experimental variable.
E) statistical regression.

Question 49

The before-after with control group design is particularly susceptible to the following:

A) history effect.
B) maturation effect.
C) main testing effect.
D) interactive testing effect.
E) selection bias.

Question 50

In the before-after with control group design, 0₂ - 0₁ is a measure of

A) E + U + I.
B) E + U.
C) E.
D) nothing (it is irrelevant).
E) none of the above.

Question 51

In the before-after with control group design the difference 0₄ minus 0₃ reflects

A) the effects of the extraneous influences.
B) the difference between the control group and the experimental group.
C) the change in attitude of the subject.
D) the interactive effect of testing.
E) the effect of the experimental stimulus.

Question 52

The before-after design with control group may not control for

A) the main testing effect.
B) the interactive testing effect.
C) maturation.
D) statistical regression.
E) history.

Question 53

When an interactive testing effect is likely to be present, which type of experimental design should be used?

A) the before-after with control group design
B) the one-shot case study design
C) the four-group-six-study design
D) a time series design
E) the static group comparison design

Question 54

The groups of a four-group-six-study design that are measured both before and after the introduction of the experimental stimulus are

A) the two experimental groups.
B) the first experimental group and the second control group.
C) the first control group and the second experimental group.
D) all four groups.
E) the first experimental and control groups.

Question 55

In the four-group six-study design, (0₂ - 0₁) - (0₄ - 0₃), is a measure of

A) E.
B) E + U.
C) E + U + I.
D) E + I.
E) none of the above.

Question 56

The researcher can estimate the impact of the experimental stimulus in the four-group-six-study design when there is an interactive testing effect by comparing

A) the second control group and the first experimental group.
B) the two experimental groups.
C) the second experimental and control groups.
D) the first control group and the second experimental group.
E) the first experimental and control groups.

Question 57

In a four-group-six-study design, an estimate of the size of the interactive testing effect is provided by comparing

A) the second experimental and control groups.
B) the first control group and the second experimental group.
C) the two experimental groups.
D) the first experimental and second control groups.
E) the first experimental and control groups.

Question 58

Why is the practical application of the four-group-six-study design somewhat limited in marketing?

A) The design is expensive in terms of time.
B) Marketing samples are not always large enough to divide the samples of test units into four groups.
C) If the group samples are small, it is unlikely they will be equal even if assigned randomly.
D) The design is expensive.
E) All of the above.

Question 59

Which type of experimental design does not allow the investigation of individual cases of change?

A) the four-group-six-study design
B) the before-after design with control group
C) the after-only with control group design
D) the time series design
E) the one-group pretest-posttest design

Question 60

The independent variable in the study is

A) samples of cheese.
B) people receiving the free samples.
C) discount coupon use.
D) coupon redemption rate.
E) purchases of cheddar cheese measured by the number of coupons redeemed.

Question 61

The after-only with control group design is very sensitive to the problems of

A) history and maturation.
B) statistical regression and selection bias.
C) maturation and experimental mortality.
D) selection bias and experimental mortality.
E) the main testing effect and history.

Question 62

A local cheese producer feels their biggest problem is to get consumers acquainted with their product. An experiment is run in which 50 free samples of cheddar cheese are distributed to a randomly selected sample of families. This group and another group of 1,000 randomly selected people to which free samples had not been given are both sent coupons for the purchase of cheddar cheese at a discount at local grocery stores. The keyed coupons show that 387 coupons are returned from the group receiving the free sample and 130 are received from the other group.
Answer the following three questions on the basis of this information.

-The design being used in the study is

A)
R 0₁ X $\quad$ 0₂
R 0₃ $\quad$ 0₄
B)
R $\quad$ X $\quad$ 0₁
R $\quad$$\quad$ 0₂
C)
R $\quad$ X $\quad$ 0₁0₂
R $\quad$$\quad$ 0₃0₄
D)
R 0₁ X $\quad$ 0₂
R $\quad\quad$$\quad$ 0₃
E) none of the above.

Question 63

A local cheese producer feels their biggest problem is to get consumers acquainted with their product. An experiment is run in which 50 free samples of cheddar cheese are distributed to a randomly selected sample of families. This group and another group of 1,000 randomly selected people to which free samples had not been given are both sent coupons for the purchase of cheddar cheese at a discount at local grocery stores. The keyed coupons show that 387 coupons are returned from the group receiving the free sample and 130 are received from the other group.
Answer the following three questions on the basis of this information.

-The after-only with control group has the following advantages:

A) allows analysis of individual cases of change.
B) cost relative to other true experimental designs.
C) time relative to other true experimental designs.
D) b and c.
E) all of the above.

Question 64

A local cheese producer feels their biggest problem is to get consumers acquainted with their product. An experiment is run in which 50 free samples of cheddar cheese are distributed to a randomly selected sample of families. This group and another group of 1,000 randomly selected people to which free samples had not been given are both sent coupons for the purchase of cheddar cheese at a discount at local grocery stores. The keyed coupons show that 387 coupons are returned from the group receiving the free sample and 130 are received from the other group.
Answer the following three questions on the basis of this information.

-Which type of experimental design does not allow the investigation of individual cases of change?

A) to study the effect of coupons on product trial
B) to study the effect of product acquaintance on the purchase of cheddar cheese
C) to study the effect of free samples on the use of discount coupons
D) to study the demographic characteristics of cheddar cheese purchasers
E) to study the effect of free samples on product trial

Question 65

Probably the most used true experimental design in marketing research because of the advantages it possesses with respect to sample size, cost, and time is

A) the four-group-six-study design.
B) the after-only with control group design.
C) the time series design.
D) the before-after design with control group.
E) the static-group comparison design.

Question 66

The time series experiment is most like

A) the before-after with control group design.
B) the one group pretest-posttest design.
C) the after-only with control group design.
D) the one-shot case study.
E) the static group comparison.

Question 67

Time series experiments

A) are the only form of quasi-experimental designs that exist.
B) allow the researcher repeated access to the same test units.
C) are fundamentally weak because of the failure to control maturation.
D) a and b.
E) a, b, and c.

Question 68

The most fundamental weakness of the time series experiment is the failure to control for

A) maturation.
B) history.
C) selection bias.
D) the main testing effect.
E) experimental mortality.

Question 69

A retail hardware chain is considering a self-service system for its 326 stores. Ten stores have been selected for a trial period of three months. Ten other stores, matching the experimental stores as closely as possible, have been selected as a control group in which the traditional clerk system will operate. Dollar sales for each of the twenty stores will be recorded weekly for the three month period. Prior to the study, weekly sales will be recorded for a month, as a "before" measure. The difference in sales between the experimental and control groups is expected to help management in its decision.
Answer the following three questions on the basis of the above information.

-The experimental variable in this study is

A) the stores.
B) the trial period.
C) sales.
D) Self-service.
E) none of the above.

Question 70

A retail hardware chain is considering a self-service system for its 326 stores. Ten stores have been selected for a trial period of three months. Ten other stores, matching the experimental stores as closely as possible, have been selected as a control group in which the traditional clerk system will operate. Dollar sales for each of the twenty stores will be recorded weekly for the three month period. Prior to the study, weekly sales will be recorded for a month, as a "before" measure. The difference in sales between the experimental and control groups is expected to help management in its decision.
Answer the following three questions on the basis of the above information.

-The dependent variable is

A) the attitudes of consumers towards self-service.
B) dollar sales.
C) the stores.
D) the method of operation.
E) the product category (hardware).

Question 71

A retail hardware chain is considering a self-service system for its 326 stores. Ten stores have been selected for a trial period of three months. Ten other stores, matching the experimental stores as closely as possible, have been selected as a control group in which the traditional clerk system will operate. Dollar sales for each of the twenty stores will be recorded weekly for the three month period. Prior to the study, weekly sales will be recorded for a month, as a "before" measure. The difference in sales between the experimental and control groups is expected to help management in its decision.
Answer the following three questions on the basis of the above information.

-Select the alternative that does not represent an extraneous variable.

A) method of operation (self-service vs. clerk)
B) differences in items offered in self-service vs. clerk operated stores
C) any special promotion by any store or stores
D) time period selected, e.g., near Christmas time
E) differences in physical attractiveness of the stores

Question 72

Descriptive studies are not useful in causal research because

A) equivalency of the control and experiment groups before observation cannot be substantiated.
B) concomitant variation cannot be observed.
C) the effects of the extraneous variables cannot be controlled.
D) they are post facto research studies.
E) a, c, and d are true.

Question 73

Which of the following is TRUE?

A) The administrative problems are typically greater in experimental research than in descriptive research.
B) In descriptive research the investigator can establish the equality of the experimental and treatment groups.
C) Descriptive studies are likely to cost more than well-designed experiments.
D) a and b.
E) a and c.

Question 74

A market test

A) is done in a limited but carefully selected part of the marketplace.
B) aims to predict the sales or profit consequences of a proposed marketing action.
C) is not an experiment.
D) is a and b.
E) is b and c.

Question 75

The following are all problems associated with experimentation in general and test marketing in particular EXCEPT

A) control.
B) cost.
C) time.
D) Data-collection form design.
E) a and d.

Question 76

The costs involved in test marketing include all of the following EXCEPT

A) production costs.
B) cost of designing the data-collection instrument and sample.
C) cost of the marketing strategy support programs.
D) wages paid to field staff.
E) all of the above are cost incurred in test marketing.

Question 77

In an electronic test market

A) the providers of the service have a great deal of demographic data on their recruits.
B) the test market service monitors each household's television viewing behavior.
C) each household has an identification card for supermarket purchases.
D) Both b and c are correct.
E) Any of the above are correct.

Question 78

Standard test markets are valuable under all of the following conditions EXCEPT

A) when it is important for the firm to test its ability to secure support from the trade and get distribution.
B) when the firm desires control over the whom of measurement.
C) when the capital investment is significant and the firm needs a prolonged test market to assess its technical ability to produce the product.
D) when the firm needs to build an experience base, but only on a limited scale.
E) when the test requires a more natural environment.