Deck 6: The Individual

Question 1

Individuals can make more of a difference in international relations when political institutions are unstable or new than when political institutions are well established and functioning smoothly.

Answer 1

True

Question 2

Mirror imaging involves the tendency for small groups to shun members of the group who disagree with the majority opinion.

Answer 2

False

Question 3

Realism and radicalism pay far more attention to the individual's role in international relations than do liberalism and constructivism.

Answer 3

False

Question 4

Individuals with an "independent" (rather than "participatory") orientation to foreign affairs

A) have a high level of nationalism.
B) have little belief in their own ability to control events.
C) have a high need for affiliation.
D) have high levels of conceptual complexity.
E) have low levels of distrust of others.

Question 5

Individual leaders are most likely to have a powerful influence in which of the following situations?

A) when political institutions are stable and established.
B) when there are few institutional constraints.
C) when the issue is central rather than peripheral.
D) when the issue is routine.
E) when the information is clear and readily available.

Question 6

Track-two diplomacy occurs when mass actions by a leaderless public shape the relationships between two states.

Question 7

Which two theories argue that individuals are constrained by the international system, and therefore individuals are of little importance to analyze?

A) liberalism and neorealism
B) constructivism and liberalism
C) neorealism and radicalism
D) radicalism and constructivism
E) liberalism and realism

Question 8

Individuals are only able to affect dramatic foreign policy changes in non-democratic states because democratic leaders are too constrained by institutions to be able to do so.

Question 9

Political psychologist Margaret Hermann found that leaders can be divided into two foreign policy orientations based on their combination of personality traits. What are these orientations?

A) independent and participatory
B) independent and nationalistic
C) participatory and nationalistic
D) participatory and controlling
E) self-confident and independent

Question 10

Part of the reason Franklin Roosevelt and Mikhail Gorbachev had so much individual influence on their respective countries was because

A) they drew on their experiences as former UN representatives.
B) they held firm to the principles of their predecessors.
C) their countries were in economic crises during their time in power.
D) they refused to join any political parties.
E) they led their countries at times of domestic stability.

Question 11

Beyond psychological techniques, such as the evoked set and mirror image to process new information, individuals in small groups are affected by pressure for group solidarity.

Question 12

Which of the following statements is True of the study of individuals in international relations?

A) State leaders are the only individuals that can exert a real impact on international relations.
B) Realists highlight the key role that individual leaders can play in affecting international relations.
C) Even individuals who are not state leaders can have a significant influence on war and peace.
D) The extent to which individuals matter is the same across all IR theories.
E) There is no empirical evidence that individual leaders and their personal characteristics make a difference in foreign policy.

Question 13

Even leaders of authoritarian regimes pay attention to the dominant mood of their mass public.

Question 14

Only individuals who hold leadership positions can have a significant influence on war, peace, and international policies.

Question 15

Satisficing, the tendency for groups to search for a "good enough" solution to a problem rather than the optimal one, means that states do not always use the rational decision-making model of foreign policy.

Question 16

Mass publics can sometimes affect international relations regardless of what elites do.

Question 17

In contrast to realists and radicals, liberals and constructivists share a belief that individuals are ________ in international relations.

A) important and can make a difference
B) less important than the international system
C) of little analytical value
D) almost as important as the state
E) only important in a crisis situation

Question 18

Which example would constructivists use to explain the rise of "new ideas" in Soviet foreign policy?

A) the role played by Lenin
B) the role played by networks of pro-Western reformers
C) the role played by international capitalism
D) the role played by the Soviet military
E) the role played by rapid Soviet economic growth

Question 19

A study analyzing Tony Blair found that he had a strong belief about his own ability to control events and a high need for power accompanied by a low conceptual complexity. Following Margaret Hermann's personality classification scheme, what type of foreign policy orientation does this show Tony Blair had?

A) independent
B) participatory
C) nationalistic
D) controlling
E) self-confident

Question 20

Mass publics have quite different psychological tendencies than elite individuals or members of small groups.

Question 21

One of the problems with using an evoked set is that

A) it can change an individual's belief system.
B) it biases toward thinking one's own actions are good and moral.
C) it biases toward thinking the enemy's actions are evil, immoral, and unjust.
D) key differences between situations are often ignored.
E) it inhibits individuals' ability to use perceptions to assist with decision making.

Question 22

One function of perceptions in the decision-making process is an "integrating" function. This means that perceptions

A) provide guidance about future expectations.
B) lay out relevant choices.
C) permit an individual to synthesize and interpret information.
D) stipulate goals.
E) provide unbiased information.

Question 23

Many situations have benefited from track-two diplomacy, including

A) Eritrea's secession from Ethiopia.
B) Lyndon Johnson's conduct of the Vietnam War.
C) Jimmy Carter's rescue of the Iranian hostages.
D) the end of the Persian Gulf War.
E) the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Question 24

Private individuals often affect international relations by

A) engaging in activities in which officials are unwilling to participate.
B) following the same "rules of the game" as official representatives.
C) leading revolutions.
D) making speeches at the United Nations.
E) voting on policy choices.

Question 25

The psychological bias that leads individuals to select or amplify information that supports their existing beliefs and ignore or downplay contradictory information is called

A) groupthink.
B) mirror imaging.
C) satisficing.
D) cognitive consistency.
E) rationality.

Question 26

Using evoked sets, mirror images, and cognitive consistency are all

A) consistent with the rational model of decision making.
B) influenced by belief systems that are easily changed.
C) components of the groupthink model.
D) psychological techniques that help individuals process and evaluate information.
E) factors that help provide individuals with perfect and complete information in decision making.

Question 27

Groupthink occurs when

A) individuals in a group use evoked sets.
B) individuals in a group are excessively pessimistic.
C) individuals suppress the motivation to pursue alternative choices.
D) individuals pressure other group members to pursue alternative choices.
E) individuals in a group do not satisfice.

Question 28

________ is the tendency to look for details in a present situation that are similar to information previously obtained, leading one to conclusions that are similar to those of the past.

A) Groupthink
B) Mirror imaging
C) Satisficing
D) An evoked set
E) Cognitive consistency

Question 29

Decision makers can minimize mistakes due to various misperceptions by

A) using evoked sets.
B) censoring dissenters.
C) making their assumptions and beliefs as explicit as possible.
D) working together in small groups.
E) working together in large groups.

Question 30

During the 1956 Suez Crisis, British prime minister Eden compared Egyptian president Nasser to Hitler, drawing the analogy that since Hitler could not be appeased at Munich, Nasser could not be appeased here. This is an example of using

A) cognitive consistency.
B) an evoked set.
C) satisficing.
D) groupthink.
E) mirror imaging.

Question 31

What does mirror imaging entail?

A) the tendency to accept information that is compatible with what has previously been accepted
B) the tendency to look for details in a present situation that are similar to information previously obtained
C) the tendency of groups to look for a "good enough" rather than optimal solution
D) the tendency for small groups to form a consensus and resist criticism of that core position
E) the tendency of individuals and groups to see in their opponent the opposite characteristics seen in themselves

Question 32

Which of the following is an example of mirror imaging?

A) Americans viewing the Soviet Union as hostile and untrustworthy during the Cold War
B) American policy makers shunning those who didn't agree with them during the Cold War
C) Americans viewing the Cold War through the lens of World War II
D) Americans thinking Soviet leaders were similar to themselves
E) Americans feeling Soviet actions followed the same pattern as Germany's actions

Question 33

Personality characteristics affect the leadership of ________ more than ________ because the former are less likely to be checked by institutions than the latter.

A) democratic leaders; dictators
B) dictators; democratic leaders
C) Republicans; Democrats
D) Democrats; Republicans
E) males; females

Question 34

Recent work has expanded the application of groupthink to explain

A) the use of mirror images.
B) long-term changes in ideas.
C) satisficing.
D) the rational model of decision making.
E) the realist view of the international system.

Question 35

Which of the following is an example of track-two diplomacy?

A) the United States simultaneously negotiating with a foreign government and that state's domestic interest groups
B) a Norwegian sociologist's efforts to reconcile relations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization
C) U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points and the Treaty of Versailles
D) the United States threatening Iran with sanctions and invasion
E) Soviet and Americans leaders meeting at a summit

Question 36

The set of images created by perceptions and that guide individuals in making certain policy choices are collectively called

A) a belief system.
B) cognitive consistency.
C) an evoked set.
D) groupthink.
E) a balance of power.

Question 37

How does satisficing differ from rational decision making?

A) Leaders don't always clearly identify a problem.
B) Leaders aren't always able to elucidate their goals.
C) Leaders cannot always determine policy alternatives.
D) Leaders don't always analyze costs and benefits of policy alternatives.
E) Leaders don't always choose the optimal solution.

Question 38

What is track-two diplomacy?

A) simultaneously negotiating with domestic interest groups and a foreign state
B) negotiating between the United Nations and national embassies
C) utilizing individuals or groups outside government to help resolve conflicts
D) relying on either an older or a younger generation of diplomats to solve conflicts
E) using threats of both military force and economic sanctions in negotiations

Question 39

Many international relations theorists argue that the rational model of decision making does not accurately reflect reality because, in actuality, individual decision makers are

A) always confronted by information that is perfect and complete.
B) unwilling to follow the prescribed steps of the model.
C) conditioned by their personal experiences and beliefs.
D) shaped by their class loyalties.
E) suffering from diagnosable mental illnesses.

Question 40

One function of perceptions in the decision-making process is an "orienting" function. This means that perceptions

A) provide guidance about future expectations.
B) lay out relevant choices.
C) permit an individual to synthesize and interpret information.
D) stipulate goals.
E) provide unbiased information.

Question 41

What is a drawback to the territorial imperative explanation of foreign policy?

A) Some individuals and societies are not interested in defending their territory.
B) Some people get frustrated but they do not turn aggressive.
C) Even if all humans share the biological predisposition to defend their territory, not all leaders and peoples act on these predispositions.
D) Most large states feel they have no need to expand.
E) Most animal species prefer negotiation to conflict.

Question 42

What role do constructivists think elites can play in international politics?

A) Constructivists do not think elites can play a role in international politics.
B) They can promote ideas that can bring about change.
C) They define the state interest.
D) They project state power in the international system.
E) They organize class-based politics.

Question 43

The events of the Arab Spring

A) cannot be overturned.
B) are examples of elite support leading mass revolutions.
C) were not influenced by mass media.
D) show that individuals do not matter in international politics.
E) have led to a clear future of democracy in Egypt and other Arab states.

Question 44

Aung San Suu Kyi won the Nobel Peace Prize for leading opposition to

A) the Vietnam War.
B) the government in Tunisia.
C) nuclear proliferation.
D) prison camps in North Korea.
E) the government in Myanmar (Burma).

Question 45

When it comes to foreign policy and other international issues, leaders often pay attention to the dominant moods of the public, which can be measured by

A) television news coverage.
B) congressional voting records.
C) public-opinion polls.
D) frequent referendums.
E) United Nations voting patterns.

Question 46

Which school of thought places the most emphasis on the stories of private individuals?

A) realism
B) liberalism
C) radicalism
D) constructivism
E) passivism

Question 47

Which of the following is an example of the frustration-aggression syndrome?

A) Jimmy Carter launching a rescue mission to free the Iranian hostages
B) Gorbachev's attempts to reform the Soviet economy
C) the war over the Falkland Islands
D) the Palestinians' often violent attacks on Israel
E) Armand Hammer's behavior after the Chernobyl nuclear accident

Question 48

Which theoretical perspective places great emphasis on the role of individuals in international relations?

A) realist
B) liberal
C) radical
D) behavioral
E) scientific

Question 49

What limits the influence of public opinion on foreign policy?

A) Often the public does not express one dominant mood on foreign policy.
B) There are very few polls taken on foreign policy issues.
C) In dictatorships, leaders do not depend on public opinion so they ignore it.
D) Elites completely ignore the public's opinions.
E) Only leaders up for reelection care about public views.

Question 50

The psychological tendencies of mass publics

A) did not lead people to see the United States and Soviet Union as mirror images during the Cold War.
B) are more complex than those of elite individuals and small groups.
C) are the same as those of elite individuals and small groups.
D) are key characteristics of track-two diplomacy.
E) define what we mean by "groupthink."

Question 51

Occasionally, the mass public votes directly on an issue of foreign policy significance, such as when

A) Switzerland voted to leave the United Nations.
B) the United States ratified the Maastricht Treaty.
C) Britain voted on whether the state will remain in the European Union.
D) Germans voted to begin World War II.
E) Russians voted to end the Soviet Union.

Question 52

Which of the following is True of mass action?

A) The masses, like elites, are controlled by formal institutions
B) Without elites, the masses cannot affect the course of world politics.
C) Mass action is never influenced by elites.
D) The tearing down of the Berlin Wall in 1989 is an example of elite action, rather than mass action, changing world politics.
E) U.S. immigration policy has been influenced by mass action.

Question 53

Which of the following is True of arguments about traits differentiated by gender?

A) No arguments in international relations point to differences in gender.
B) These differences cannot explain political behavior.
C) Women are seen as consensus builders.
D) These predispositions can always be cited to explain the extreme variation in individual behavior.
E) Feminists and constructivists argue that the differences between men and women are rooted in biology.

Question 54

What is the relationship between public opinion and elite actions?

A) Elite policy is always a reflection of public attitudes.
B) Elite policy is never a reflection of public attitudes.
C) Elite policy is sometimes shaped by public attitudes.
D) The relationships between the two have not been fully investigated by international relations scholars.
E) Elite policy always creates supportive public attitudes.

Question 55

Why do mass publics matter to liberals?

A) Because they help formulate the state's interests.
B) Because they influence groupthink dynamics.
C) Mass publics do not matter to liberals.
D) Because they affect track-two diplomacy.
E) Because they create mirror images for elites.

Question 56

Alternative critical and postmodernist approaches are drawing attention to the role that marginalized groups play in international relations, including

A) Gorbachev's refusal to accept international aid following the Chernobyl nuclear disaster.
B) the activities of diplomatic wives and women factory workers.
C) Soviet citizens' private efforts to rescue Vietnamese prisoners of war.
D) the actions of U.S. military leaders during Vietnam.
E) the United States ending its embargo against Cuba.

Question 57

Why do realists downplay the role of the individual in international relations?

A) They believe policy is determined only by the anarchic international system.
B) They believe the individual is constrained by the national interest.
C) They believe individuals are constrained by the interests of their economic classes.
D) They believe there are too few democracies where individuals do matter.
E) They believe public opinion polls are never accurate.

Question 58

Why do radicals downplay the role of the individual in international relations?

A) They view individuals as members of constantly shifting economic classes.
B) They believe individuals are constrained by a state driven by economic imperatives.
C) They view individuals as pawns in an anarchic international system.
D) They feel all workers are united in one opinion.
E) They can only explain policy in communist countries.

Question 59

The influence of mass publics on foreign policy can be explained by which of the following?

A) Masses and elites act the same because they share common psychological and biological traits.
B) Masses' attitudes and opinions about international relations are always the same as elites'.
C) Masses can profoundly impact international relations only when they act through formal institutions.
D) Elites ignore the opinions of the mass public.
E) Mass publics only elect people that they agree with on foreign policy issues.

Question 60

Which of the following is True of public opinion and foreign policy?

A) Elections are the perfect measure of public opinion on foreign policy.
B) Public opinion polls do not ask the same questions, thus allowing leaders to get reliable data on public opinion.
C) Public opinion polls have only been conducted in the United States and European Union.
D) U.S. leaders always incorporate public attitudes into policy decisions.
E) Even leaders of authoritarian regimes pay attention to the dominant moods of their mass publics.

Question 61

Discuss two different ways that the mass public's influence on foreign policy might be explained. How is the mass public's influence affected by or not affected by the role of political elites?

Question 62

Briefly describe cognitive consistency, the evoked set, mirror images, and groupthink, then explain which of these information-processing mechanisms you consider most important and why. Do these four mechanisms work independently of one another, or are they interrelated somehow? Are any of them more likely to produce greater political disasters or successes? Why or why not?

Question 63

Compare and contrast the role that the individual plays in international politics according to realists, liberals, constructivists, and radicals. Which of these theories do you think best captures the role that the individual plays in international politics? Why?

Question 64

Do mass publics really matter in the foreign policy process? Articulate a clear response to this question and support your position with specific examples.

Question 65

Liberalism focuses much of its attention on individuals and regards their actions as immensely important. Generally speaking, what do you think are the most significant implications of this theoretical orientation for our understanding of international relations? More specifically, what are some specific international issues, dynamics, or processes that we would not be able to understand clearly were it not for liberalism's focus on individuals? Be specific and justify your answer.