In a series of experiments,Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson (1995)had both African-American and Anglo-American students at Stanford University take a verbal test.In one condition,the test was described as a valid measure of intelligence,and in the other condition,the test was described as neither a reliable nor valid measure of intelligence.In the former condition,African-Americans performed more poorly than did Anglo-Americans because

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Steele and Aronson's experiments explored the concept of stereotype vulnerability, in which individuals who belong to groups that are negatively stereotyped in a specific domain may experience anxiety and self-doubt about their ability to perform well in that domain. In this case, the African-American students were likely influenced by the cultural stereotype that they may be less intelligent than their Anglo-American counterparts, leading to decreased performance on the verbal test. The description of the test as a valid measure of intelligence likely amplified the stereotype threat and vulnerability experienced by the African-American students.

In a Series of Experiments,Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson (1995)had