In a series of experiments, Steele and Aronson (1995) had both African-American and Anglo-American students at Stanford University take a verbal test. In one condition, the test was described as a valid measure of intelligence, and in the other condition, the test was described as neither a reliable nor valid measure of intelligence. In the former condition, African Americans performed more poorly than did Anglo Americans because

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The experiment described involved stereotype threat, which refers to the phenomenon of individuals performing worse on a task when they believe their group is negatively stereotyped in that domain. In this case, the African-American students were aware of the stereotype that they may not perform as well as Anglo-American students on an academic intelligence test, and this awareness negatively affected their performance.

In a Series of Experiments, Steele and Aronson (1995) Had