In the early Middle Ages, the three heirs to the Roman Empire shared all of the following except

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The three heirs to the Roman Empire during the early Middle Ages were the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic Caliphate, and the Western European Kingdoms. While they all shared the belief that their rulers were chosen by God and were God's agents, and they all attempted to balance mutual interests with bitter rivalries, they did not have the same level of literacy and commerce. The Byzantine Empire had a high level of literacy and a strong tradition of commerce, while the Islamic Caliphate also had a high level of literacy and was a center of trade and commerce, and the Western European Kingdoms had lower levels of literacy and were less involved in trade and commerce.

In the Early Middle Ages, the Three Heirs to the Roman