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The cycads, a mostly tropical phylum of gymnosperms, evolved about 300 million years ago and were dominant forms during the Age of the Dinosaurs. Though their sperm are flagellated, their ovules are pollinated by beetles. These beetles get nutrition (they eat pollen) and shelter from the microsporophylls. Upon visiting megasporophylls, the beetles transfer pollen to the exposed ovules. In cycads, pollen cones and seed cones are borne on different plants. Cycads synthesize neurotoxins, especially in the seeds, that are effective against most animals, including humans.
-If the beetles survive by consuming cycad pollen, then whether the beetles should be considered mutualists with, or parasites of, the cycads depends upon

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The relationship between the beetles and cycads can be considered mutualistic if the beetles aid in the reproduction of the cycads. If the beetles consume cycad pollen and transfer it to the exposed ovules, which results in successful reproduction, then this would be a mutualistic relationship. However, if the beetles consume too much pollen or damage the cycad flowers, then it could be considered a parasitic relationship. Therefore, the extent to which the overall activities of the beetles affect cycad reproduction is crucial in determining if the relationship is mutualistic or parasitic.

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