From a data analysis viewpoint, it is impossible to distinguish between an intervening variable and a spurious association.

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In data analysis, it is difficult to differentiate between an intervening variable that is truly related to both the dependent and independent variables and a spurious association that is just due to chance or other factors. Therefore, it is challenging to identify the underlying cause of the relationship between two variables.

From a Data Analysis Viewpoint, It Is Impossible to Distinguish