Sampson and Raudenbush (1999) and St. Jean (2007) used direct observation and other techniques in their studies of ______.

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Sampson and Raudenbush (1999) and St. Jean (2007) conducted studies on neighborhood disorder and crime in Chicago, focusing on the social dynamics and environmental factors contributing to crime rates in urban settings. Their research is often associated with the examination of the broken windows theory in the context of urban decay and its impact on crime.