Four-year-old Aaron doesn't recall ever seeing a hypodermic needle, and he can't remember the series of painful injections he received when he was a 2-year-old. When shown a hypodermic needle, however, he reacted with a classically conditioned fear response. Aaron's fear reaction indicates that he retains a(n) ________ memory.

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Aaron's fear response suggests that he has retained an implicit memory, which is a type of long-term memory that is not consciously recalled but still affects behavior and emotions. Classical conditioning is a form of implicit memory in which a neutral stimulus (in this case, the needle) becomes associated with an emotional response (fear), leading to a learned fear response to that stimulus.

Four-Year-Old Aaron Doesn't Recall Ever Seeing a Hypodermic Needle, and He