While current historians argue that the Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires all ultimately collapsed because of economic pressures exerted by Europe, the rulers themselves felt more threatened by

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European military superiority was a significant concern for the rulers of the Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires. They recognized the advanced military technology and tactics of European powers as a direct threat to their sovereignty and stability, leading to efforts to modernize their own military forces in response.

While Current Historians Argue That the Ottoman, Russian, and Qing