Before the formulation and acceptance of the ______ theory, the administration of criminal justice in Europe was cruel, uncertain, and unpredictable.

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The classical theory, developed in the 18th century by thinkers like Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, emphasized rationality, free will, and the proportionality of punishment. It marked a significant shift from the previously arbitrary and often brutal systems of justice, advocating for a more systematic and humane approach to criminal punishment.

Before the Formulation and Acceptance of the ______ Theory, the Administration