In their quest to justify oppressing non-white people, white scientists of the mid-1800s used all of the following pseudo-scientific measures to place white people at the top of a racial hierarchy EXCEPT

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The pseudo-scientific measures used by white scientists in the mid-1800s to justify racial hierarchies typically focused on physical attributes like skull size and shape, and sometimes physical strength, but not on metaphysical concepts like the existence of a soul.

In Their Quest to Justify Oppressing Non-White People, White Scientists