Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons
Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned.
Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them.
Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able.
-In Butler's view, injustice is caused by:

A) desires for external goods.
B) love of injustice.
C) ill-will toward others.
D) self-hatred.