J.J.C. Smart: Extreme and Restricted Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism judges actions by their consequences, but are acts to be judged individually or by classes? Smart refers to the former view as extreme utilitarianism, which holds that we should test individual actions by their consequences. He refers to the latter view as restricted utilitarianism, which holds that actions are to be tested by rules and rules by consequences. The main divide between these two forms of utilitarianism, then, comes down to whether rules have intrinsic moral significance. Smart thinks not.
Smart argues that restricted utilitarianism faces a damning dilemma. If we must follow the rules even when non-optimific, then rule utilitarianism is committed to an implausible form of rule worship. For example, suppose that we knew a given rule produced the best outcome 99% of the time, but we also know that in this particular instance it will not. To follow this rule, when we know it will not produce the best result is, Smart claims, to idolize the rule. And rules, unlike the good, do not themselves provide us with reasons. If, to avoid such worship, we implement a rule that prescribes breaking the rules when non-optimific, then rule utilitarianism collapses into extreme utilitarianism. Thus, either rule utilitarianism is implausible or it is extensionally identical to act utilitarianism. Either way, Smart concludes, extreme utilitarianism is to be preferred.
-How, according to Smart, does the extreme utilitarian rely on rules? Does this push the extreme utilitarian toward restricted utilitarianism? Use Smart's example of the rules of the road in explaining your answer.

Question

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The Answer is According to J.J.C. Smart, the extreme utilitarian relies on rules as a way to guide individual actions towards producing the best consequences. However, the extreme utilitarian does not believe that rules have intrinsic moral significance. Instead, rules are seen as a means to an end, with the end being the maximization of overall well-being or happiness.

Smart's example of the rules of the road illustrates this point. In the context of driving, the rules of the road are in place to ensure the safety and efficiency of traffic. The extreme utilitarian would argue that following these rules, such as stopping at red lights or yielding to pedestrians, is important because it ultimately leads to the best consequences for society as a whole. However, the extreme utilitarian does not view these rules as inherently valuable in and of themselves. They are simply tools to achieve the desired outcome of overall well-being.

In this sense, while the extreme utilitarian does rely on rules to guide actions, this does not necessarily push them towards restricted utilitarianism. The focus is still on evaluating individual actions based on their consequences, rather than adhering to rules for their own sake. Therefore, according to Smart, the extreme utilitarianism remains distinct from restricted utilitarianism in its approach to the role of rules in moral decision-making.