According to Mazumdar's theory (1992) and Lewer and Van den Berg's (2001, 2003) empirical results, who gains the most from trade?

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Mazumdar's theory and Lewer and Van den Berg's empirical results suggest that countries who import mainly capital goods (such as machinery and equipment) gain the most from trade. This is because these imports allow countries to improve their production efficiency and competitiveness, which leads to higher economic growth and income levels. Conversely, countries that primarily import consumption goods (such as food and clothing) do not experience as much gains from trade, as their imports do not have as much of an impact on their productivity and competitiveness. Countries that are closed and do not trade at all also do not benefit from trade.

According to Mazumdar's Theory (1992) and Lewer and Van Den