Ancient societies and 'primitive' social groups often invested the penal process with a wholly religious meaning, so that punishment was understood as a necessary sacrifice to an aggrieved deity.

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Many ancient societies and primitive social groups believed in the power of their gods and viewed punishment as a way to appease them. Punishment was seen as a necessary sacrifice to restore balance and harmony within the community.

Ancient Societies and 'Primitive' Social Groups Often Invested the Penal