Both the cross-sectional and ecological designs have important limitations that make them less scientifically rigorous than cohort and case-control studies.

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Cross-sectional and ecological studies are often considered less rigorous due to their inability to establish causality and susceptibility to confounding factors, unlike cohort and case-control studies which can better assess temporal relationships and control for confounders.

Both the Cross-Sectional and Ecological Designs Have Important Limitations That