In the U.S. school system of the mid-to-late 20th century, intelligence tests, which had not at the time been normed on Black children or children of lower socioeconomic status (SES), were used as the sole measure for

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Intelligence tests were often used as the primary or sole measure for placing children in special education programs. This practice was criticized for not taking into account cultural and socioeconomic differences that could affect test performance.

In the US School System of the Mid-To-Late 20th Century, Intelligence Tests