In order to establish causality, participants in all conditions should be

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To establish causality, participants in all conditions should be equivalent, meaning they should be alike in all relevant ways except for the variable being manipulated. This helps ensure that any observed differences can be attributed to the manipulation and not to other factors that may vary between groups. Manipulation (A) and counterbalancing (D) can also enhance the internal validity of an experiment, but equivalence is essential. Undergraduate students (C) are not necessary or sufficient for establishing causality.

In Order to Establish Causality, Participants in All Conditions Should