Edge Effects Are the Result of Which of the Following

Edge effects are the result of which of the following?

A) Populations of flora and fauna have emigrated from the core of their population center to the edge of their habitat.
B) Metapopulations of some of the larger fauna have become more dominant on the landscape and as a result have increased the edge of their habitat.
C) Habitat fragmentations or habitat shrinkage have occurred,and thus the edge of the habitats have increased in size.
D) Habitat fragmentations or habitat shrinkage have occurred,and thus the edge of the habitats have decreased in size.
E) Populations of particular species have decreased and are on the edge of extinction.