Mohandas Gandhi in India, Jomo Kenyatta in East Africa, and Simon Bolivar in Latin America all mobilized new forms of:

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All three leaders mobilized movements aimed at promoting the interests and rights of their respective ethnic groups. Gandhi fought for Indian independence from British colonial rule and championed the rights of Hindu and Muslim Indians. Kenyatta sought to free Kenya from British colonialism and advocated for the rights of the Kikuyu people. Bolivar led the liberation of several South American countries from Spanish colonialism and promoted a unified Latin American identity. These movements were rooted in ethnonationalism, which is the belief that a particular ethnic group has a right to self-determination and control over its own affairs.