By the 13?? century,the city-states along Africa's east coast had become

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By the 13th century, city-states such as Kilwa, Sofala, and Mogadishu were thriving as commercial hubs, thanks to their position on trade routes linking Africa to Arabia, India, and China. They traded in gold, ivory, slaves, and other commodities and became the centers of East Africa's Indian Ocean trade network. They grew rich and developed distinct cultures and political systems, but they were not yet fully-fledged nation-states.

By the 13?? Century,the City-States Along Africa's East Coast Had