Deck 2: Cross-Cultural Research Methods

Question 1

In unpackaging studies,"culture" as an unspecified variable is replaced by more specific variables in order to explain observed differences.

Answer 1

True

Question 2

_____ test the equivalence of psychological measures and tests for use in other cross-cultural comparative research,and they are important to conduct before cross-cultural comparisons.

A)Cross-cultural validation studies
B)Cross-cultural comparisons
C)Multi-level comparisons
D)Individual-level studies

Answer 2

Cross-cultural validation studies

Question 3

During a cross-cultural study,if a scale was validated in one culture,it can be assumed that it is equally valid in any other culture.

Answer 3

False

Question 4

_____ is the degree to which a finding,measurement,or statistic is consistent.

A)Validity
B)Reliability
C)Bias
D)Equivalence

Question 5

_____ use rich,complex,and in-depth descriptions of cultures and cultural differences to predict and test for differences in a psychological variable.

A)Level-oriented studies
B)Indigenous cultural studies
C)Multi-level studies
D)Cross-cultural validation studies

Question 6

Cross-cultural comparisons that include the measurement of a variable (contextual factor)that assesses a cultural factor considered to produce the differences on the target variable being compared across cultures are called _____.

A)unpackaging studies
B)multi-level studies
C)individual-level studies
D)hypothesis-testing studies

Question 7

Linkage studies merely document differences between cultures on some psychological variable and are unable to state whether the source of the differences is cultural or not.

Question 8

_____ involve any variable that can explain,partly or fully,cross-cultural differences when they are observed in a study.

A)Demographic factors
B)Multi-level studies
C)Contextual factors
D)Structure-oriented studies

Question 9

_____ are studies that attempt to measure an aspect of culture theoretically hypothesized to produce cultural differences and then empirically link that measured aspect of culture with the dependent variable of interest.

A)Indigenous cultural studies
B)Multi-level studies
C)Exploratory studies
D)Linkage studies

Question 10

Studies that examine whether constructs are conceptualized the same way across cultures,the relationship of a construct to other constructs,or the measurement of a construct are called _____.

A)level-oriented studies
B)structure-oriented studies
C)individual-level studies
D)ecological-level studies

Question 11

_____ are variables that operationalize aspects of culture that researchers believe produce differences in psychological variables.

A)Multi-level factors
B)Hypothetical variables
C)Cultural factors
D)Context variables

Question 12

_____ use countries or cultures as the unit of analysis.

A)Ecological-level studies
B)Individual-level studies
C)Hypothesis-testing studies
D)Linkage studies

Question 13

_____ are studies that use data from both individual and ecological levels,and incorporate the use of sophisticated statistical techniques that examine the relationship of data at one level to data at another.

A)Exploratory studies
B)Multi-level studies
C)Individual-level studies
D)Hypothesis-testing studies

Question 14

_____ are studies that compare cultures on some psychological variable of interest,often with the hypothesis that one culture will have significantly higher scores on the variable than the other(s).

A)International research comparisons
B)Cross-cultural comparisons
C)Indigenous cultural studies
D)Linkage studies

Question 15

_____ make larger inferential jumps by testing theories of cross-cultural similarities and differences.

A)Hypothesis-testing studies
B)Exploratory studies
C)Cultural studies
D)Linkage studies

Question 16

In order to ensure cross-cultural measurement equivalence of the measure used,studies should be conducted to test the reliability and validity of measures in different cultures.

Question 17

Studies that examine cultural differences in mean levels of variables are called _____.

A)level-oriented studies
B)structural-oriented studies
C)hypothesis-level studies
D)exploratory studies

Question 18

_____ are often used as context variables to ensure that samples in different cultures actually harbor the cultural characteristics thought to differentiate them.

A)Structure-oriented factors
B)Ecological- or cultural-level measures of culture
C)Individual-level measures of culture
D)Contextual factors

Question 19

_____ is the degree to which a finding,measurement,or statistic is accurate,or represents what it is supposed to.

A)Validity
B)Reliability
C)Response bias
D)Regression analysis

Question 20

Sophisticated statistical techniques and elegant research designs are effective at "salvaging" studies that are lacking in novelty or insight.

Question 21

Which of the following describes priming studies?

A)They involve experimentally manipulating the mindsets of participants and measuring the resulting changes in behavior.
B)They test the equivalence of psychological measures and tests for use in a cross-cultural comparative research.
C)They attempt to establish the linkages between the contents of culture and the variables of interest in the study.
D)They examine whether a measure of a psychological construct that was originally generated in a single culture is applicable,meaningful,and thus equivalent in another culture.

Question 22

_____ is the tendency to give answers that make oneself look good.

A)Psychometric equivalence
B)Response bias
C)Socially desirable responding
D)Internal reliability

Question 23

One of the most important lessons to learn about cross-cultural research methods is that linguistic equivalence alone does not guarantee measurement equivalence.

Question 24

A systematic tendency to respond in a certain way to items or scales is referred to as a:

A)systematic equivalence.
B)contextual response.
C)response bias.
D)structural bias.

Question 25

Markus and Kitayama (1991b)proposed that that individualistic and collectivistic cultures differed in the kinds of self-concepts they fostered,with individualistic cultures encouraging the development of interdependent self-construals,and collectivistic cultures encouraging the development of independent self-construals.

Question 26

In the context of procedures used to establish linguistic equivalence,which of the following is an accurate description of back translation?

A)It involves several bilingual informants collectively translating a research protocol into a target language.
B)It involves taking a research protocol in one language,translating it into the target language,and having someone else translate it back to the original.
C)It is a procedure used to establish sampling equivalence.
D)It is a procedure that involves several bilingual informants debating the various forms,words,and phrases to be used while translating a research protocol to a target language.

Question 27

The _____ is an approach to establishing language equivalence,in which several bilingual informants collectively translate a research protocol into a target language.

A)decentered approach
B)metalingual approach
C)procedural approach
D)committee approach

Question 28

The degree to which a theory or set of hypotheses being compared across cultures are equivalent-that is,whether they have the same meaning and relevance in all the cultures being compared is called _____.

A)sampling bias
B)method bias
C)response bias
D)conceptual bias

Question 29

_____ can be defined as a state or condition of similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures that allows comparisons to be meaningful.

A)Equivalence
B)Cross-cultural research
C)Operationalization
D)Bias

Question 30

_____ refers to the degree to which different measures used in a cross-cultural comparison study are statistically equivalent in the cultures being compared-that is,whether the measures are equally valid and reliable in all cultures studied.

A)Psychometric equivalence
B)Operationalization
C)Linguistic bias
D)Procedural equivalence

Question 31

In cross-cultural studies,_____ refers to differences that do not have exactly the same meaning within and across cultures.

A)bias
B)tendency
C)inequality
D)nominal equivalent

Question 32

On the individual level,Triandis referred to collectivism as idiocentrism.

Question 33

To demonstrate the replicability of a finding across different samples within a culture,sound cross-cultural comparisons would entail the collection of data from multiple sites within the same cultural group,either in the same study or across studies.

Question 34

_____ is a statistical technique that allows researchers to create groups of items on a questionnaire with each group assessing a single underlying psychological construct (or trait).

A)Factor analysis
B)Regression analysis
C)Pretest analysis
D)Effect size analysis

Question 35

_____ refers to how individuals may act in accordance with collectivistic cultural frameworks.

A)Individualism
B)Centralism
C)Idiocentrism
D)Allocentrism

Question 36

According to Triandis and his colleagues (1995),individuals are autonomous and equal in _____,whereas individuals are autonomous but unequal in _____.

A)horizontal individualism;vertical collectivism
B)vertical individualism;horizontal collectivism
C)horizontal collectivism;vertical individualism
D)horizontal individualism;vertical individualism

Question 37

Identify the term that describes the concept underlying the procedure of back translation that involves eliminating any culture-specific concepts of the original language or translating them equivalently into the target language.

A)Decenter
B)Operationalization
C)Cultural attribution fallacy
D)Cultural allocentrism

Question 38

The two facets of socially desirable responding tendencies are self-deceptive enhancement and _____.

A)dramaturgy
B)personality modification
C)impression management
D)self-efficacy

Question 39

Psychometric equivalence can be ascertained by:

A)examining the internal reliability of the measures across cultures.
B)translating a research protocol to a target language with the help of bilingual informants.
C)examining whether cross-cultural samples compared are appropriate representatives of their culture.
D)creating conditions to establish cause-effect relationships.

Question 40

In _____,participants are randomly assigned to participate in the conditions created by researchers and results are then compared across conditions to establish cause-effect relationships.

A)ethnographies
B)content analyses
C)experiments
D)exploratory studies

Question 41

In the context of mistaken interpretations in cross-cultural comparison studies,_____ occur when researchers infer that something cultural produced the differences they observed in their study,despite the fact that they may not be empirically justified in doing so because they did not actually measure those cultural factors.

A)interpretation errors
B)Empirical justifications
C)cultural attribution fallacies
D)cultural barriers

Question 42

The idea of _____ is based on the notion that people make implicit social comparisons with others when making ratings on scales,rather than relying on direct inferences about a private,personal value system (Peng,Nisbett,& Wong,1997).

A)acquiescence bias
B)extreme response bias
C)reference group effect
D)implication effect

Question 43

Which of the following compares the differences observed between the groups to the differences one would normally expect on the basis of chance alone and then compute the probability that the results would have been obtained solely by chance?

A)Regression analysis
B)Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
C)Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
D)Group mean comparisons

Question 44

_____ refers to the tendency to use the ends of a scale regardless of item content.

A)Acquiescence bias
B)Extreme response bias
C)Cultural attribution fallacy
D)Reference group effect

Question 45

In the past,response biases were viewed as methodological artifacts that needed to be controlled in order to get to "true" responses,but today,there is a growing view of them as an important part of cultural influence on data.

Question 46

According to Poortinga (1989),which of the following is a strategy to deal with nonequivalent data?

A)Decentering the nonequivalence
B)Establishing cause-effect relationships
C)Increasing the nonequivalence in the data
D)Precluding comparison

Question 47

The tendency to agree rather than disagree with items on questionnaires is termed as _____.

A)reference group effect
B)acquiescence bias
C)ratchet effect
D)procedural bias

Question 48

_____ is the degree to which a measure used in a cross-cultural study produces the same factor analysis results in the different countries being compared.

A)Linguistic equivalence
B)Measurement equivalence
C)Structural equivalence
D)Sampling equivalence

Question 49

Culture can bias the ways researchers interpret their findings.

Question 50

According to Matsumoto and his colleagues,the general class of statistical procedures that helps to determine the degree to which differences in mean values reflect meaningful differences among individuals is called _____.

A)between-group statistics
B)effect size statistics
C)analysis of variance
D)multivariate analysis of variance