Question 1

It is likely that innocent prisoners in this country have been executed for crimes they did not commit. From 1973 until 2016, 151 death row inmates have been exonerated. In many of these cases DNA evidence played a crucial role. Yet, in that same time frame, more than 1000 prisoners were executed. For many of these prisoners no DNA evidence was available. If such evidence had been available, how may more would have been exonerated?
A) Argument; conclusion: In many of these cases ... played a crucial role.
B) Nonargument.
C) Argument; conclusion: From 1973 ... have been exonerated.
D) Argument; conclusion: For many of these prisoners ... was available.
E) Argument; conclusion: It is likely that innocent prisoners ... they did not commit.

Accepted Answer

The passage presents an argument that innocent prisoners may have been executed, supported by statistics about death row exonerations and the role of DNA evidence. The conclusion of this argument is the statement that it is likely innocent prisoners have been executed.

Question 2

Some over-the-counter medicines should not be given to very young children. For example, cold medicines contain decongestants and antihistamines. These substances raise blood pressure and heart rate. If an overdose should occur in a young child, the result can be fatal.
A) Argument; conclusion: Some over-the-counter medicines ... very young children.
B) Argument; conclusion: These substances raise blood pressure and heart rate.
C) Argument; conclusion: If an overdose ... the result can be fatal.
D) Argument; conclusion: Cold medicines contain decongestants and antihistamines.
E) Nonargument.

Accepted Answer

The passage presents an argument with the conclusion that some over-the-counter medicines should not be given to very young children, supported by the reasoning that these medicines contain substances that can be harmful or fatal in case of an overdose.

Question 3

Little is known of the Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived around 400 B.C. Nevertheless, the writings attributed to him have provided a number of principles underlying modern medical practice. One of his most famous contributions, the Hippocratic Oath, is the foundation of contemporary medical ethics. It requires the physician to swear that he or she will help the sick, refrain from intentional wrongdoing, and keep confidential all matters pertaining to the doctor-patient relationship. William C. Cockerham, Medical Sociology
A) Argument; conclusion: The writings attributed to him ... medical practice.
B) Nonargument.
C) Argument; conclusion: It requires the physician ... doctor-patient relationship.
D) Argument; conclusion: One of his most famous contributions ... medical ethics.
E) Argument; conclusion: Little is known ... who lived around 400 B.C.

Accepted Answer

The passage provides information about Hippocrates and the Hippocratic Oath without presenting a premise and conclusion structure typical of an argument.

Question 4

As the universe expands, it gets colder and colder. Furthermore, this expansion will continue for ever and ever. Therefore, at some point in the future the universe will become too cold to support human life, and all humans will perish.
A) Deductive, invalid.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Deductive, sound.
D) Inductive, strong.
E) Inductive, weak.

Accepted Answer

The argument is inductive because it makes a prediction about the future based on the current understanding of the universe's expansion and its effects on temperature. It does not follow a strictly logical form where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, but rather it infers a likely outcome. The argument is considered strong because it is based on well-established scientific theories about the universe's expansion and its cooling effect, making the prediction about the future plausible.

Question 5

Humans are biological organisms. To understand our behavior and mental processes, we need to understand their biological underpinnings, starting with the cellular level, the neuron. How we feel, learn, remember, and think all stem from neuronal activity. So, how a neuron works and how neurons communicate are crucial pieces of information in solving the puzzle of human behavior and mental processing. Richard Griggs, Psychology: A Concise Introduction
A) Argument; conclusion: To understand our behavior ... the neuron.
B) Argument; conclusion: Humans are biological organisms.
C) Argument; conclusion: How we feel ... neuronal activity.
D) Argument; conclusion: How a neuron works ... mental processing.
E) Nonargument.

Accepted Answer

How a neuron works and how neurons communicate are crucial pieces of information in solving the puzzle of human behavior and mental processing.

Question 6

Harnessing the clean, abundant energy of the sun and wind is critical to solving the global warming problem. Technological advances have brought the cost of electricity generated by the wind down by 82 percent since 1981. Solar energy technology has made remarkable progress as new photovoltaic cells have been developed to convert even greater amounts of sunlight directly into electricity. Today the costs of wind and solar power are becoming competitive with dirty coal-fired plants. Sierra Club, "Global Warming Solutions"
A) Argument; conclusion: Today the costs of wind ... dirty coal-fired plants.
B) Argument; conclusion: Technological advances ... by 82 percent since 1981.
C) Argument; conclusion: Harnessing the clean ... the global warming problem.
D) Nonargument.
E) Argument; conclusion: Solar energy technology ... directly into electricity.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Harnessing the clean, abundant energy of the...

Question 7

Given that x² + 2x = 15. It follows that x = 3. A) Inductive, strong. B) Inductive, weak. C) Deductive, valid. D) Inductive, cogent. E) Deductive, invalid.

Accepted Answer

This statement is deductive and valid because it uses mathematical reasoning and follows the rules of algebra. The equation presented is solvable with a clear solution, and the statement "It follows that x = 3" is a logical consequence of the equation.

Question 8

Canada is similar in many ways to the United States. Both countries share the same language, values, and a free market economy. Also, they share a common border. Therefore, the Canadian flag must look a lot like the U.S. flag.
A) Inductive, weak.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Inductive, strong.
D) Deductive, sound.
E) Deductive, valid.

Accepted Answer

The argument is inductive because it makes a generalization based on specific observations (similarities between Canada and the United States). It is considered weak because the conclusion (the Canadian flag must look a lot like the U.S. flag) does not logically follow from the premises about language, values, economy, and a shared border.

Question 9

No drug cartels are legal operations, so no legal operations are enterprises that engage in smuggling, because all drug cartels are enterprises that engage in smuggling.
A) Deductive, valid.
B) Inductive, strong.
C) Inductive, weak.
D) Deductive, sound.
E) Deductive, invalid.

Accepted Answer

The answer of No drug cartels are legal operations, so...

Question 10

The earth is of interest to astronomy for many reasons. Nearly all observations must be made through the atmosphere, and the phenomena of the upper atmosphere and the magnetosphere reflect the state of interplanetary space. The earth is also the most important object of comparison for planetologists. Hannu Karttunen, et al., Fundamental Astronomy
A) Argument; conclusion: The phenomena ... state of interplanetary space.
B) Argument; conclusion: The earth is also ... for planetologists.
C) Argument; conclusion: The earth is of interest to astronomy.
D) Nonargument.
E) Argument; conclusion: Nearly all observations ... through the atmosphere.

Accepted Answer

The passage presents multiple reasons for why the earth is of interest to astronomy, indicating that it is the main argument being made.

Question 11

If the Big Bang theory is correct, then the universe is billions of years old. And if the Big Bang theory is correct, then the universe was not created in six days. Thus, if the universe is billions of years old, then it was not created in six days.
A) Deductive, valid.
B) Inductive, strong.
C) Inductive, cogent.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Deductive, invalid.

Accepted Answer

The answer of If the Big Bang theory is correct,...

Question 12

Graffiti painted on that vacant building says "Boycott Meat." Therefore, it's clear that we should all become vegetarians.
A) Deductive, sound.
B) Inductive, weak.
C) Deductive, invalid.
D) Deductive, valid.
E) Inductive, strong.

Accepted Answer

The argument is inductive because it makes a generalization (that we should all become vegetarians) based on a specific instance (graffiti on a building). It is considered weak because the evidence (graffiti) is not a strong or reliable basis for the conclusion drawn.

Question 13

If the trade in tiger products is banned, tiger reserves are guarded by well equipped staff, communities abutting tiger habitat are given a stake in protecting tigers, and the makers of traditional medicines can be persuaded that tiger parts are not needed, then tiger poaching will be halted, habitat and life sustaining prey will be restored, and the immanent extinction of tigers in the wild will be averted.
A) Nonargument.
B) Argument; conclusion: The trade in tiger products is banned.
C) Argument; conclusion: Tiger poaching will be halted.
D) Argument; conclusion: The makers of traditional medicines ... not needed.
E) Argument; conclusion: Tiger poaching will be halted ... will be averted.

Accepted Answer

The answer of If the trade in tiger products is...

Question 14

The engraved plate beneath this painting in the art museum says "Monet." Therefore, the painting must be the work of Monet.
A) Inductive, cogent.
B) Inductive, weak.
C) Deductive, valid.
D) Inductive, strong.
E) Deductive, invalid.

Accepted Answer

The reasoning is inductive because it makes a probable conclusion based on specific evidence (the engraved plate). It is considered strong because the presence of the artist's name on a museum plaque is a strong indicator of the painting's authorship, though not absolutely certain.

Question 15

Viruses are acellular entities too small to be seen with a light microscope. They are composed of a nucleic acid and a few proteins. Viruses replicate themselves and display other properties of living organisms only when they have invaded living cells. Indeed, some viruses can be crystallized and stored in a container on a shelf for years, but they retain the capacity to invade cells and cause disease. Jacquelyn C. Black, Microbiology: Principles and Explorations
A) Argument; conclusion: They are composed of a nucleic acid and a few proteins.
B) Nonargument.
C) Argument; conclusion: Viruses are acellular entities ... microscope.
D) Argument; conclusion: Indeed, some viruses can be crystallized ... cause disease.
E) Argument; conclusion: Viruses replicate themselves ... invaded living cells.

Accepted Answer

The passage is a factual description of viruses, not an argument with a conclusion.

Question 16

Two million children have been killed in armed conflicts in the last decade. Three times as many have been injured or permanently disabled. Millions of others have been forced to take part in or witness horrifying acts of violence. In countless cases the impact of armed conflict on children's lives remains invisible. The children themselves may be removed from the public, in institutions, or survive as victims of prostitution. But those who have lost parents often experience humiliation, rejection and discrimination, and suffer in silence as their self-esteem crumbles. Child Rights Information Network
A) Nonargument.
B) Argument; conclusion: Two million children ... in the last decade.
C) Argument; conclusion: But those who have lost parents ... self-esteem crumbles.
D) Argument; conclusion: In countless cases ... remains invisible.
E) Argument; conclusion: Three times as many ... permanently disabled.

Accepted Answer

The passage provides a series of statements and facts about the impact of armed conflict on children but does not present a conclusion based on premises; thus, it is a nonargument.

Question 17

Either Bill Clinton or George W. Bush was president when the World Trade Center towers were destroyed. But Bush was not president at that time. Therefore, Bill Clinton was president when those buildings were destroyed.
A) Inductive, invalid.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Deductive, invalid.
D) Inductive, strong.
E) Inductive, weak.

Accepted Answer

This argument is deductive because it presents a logical syllogism with a clear conclusion following from the premises. It is also valid because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. In this case, the premises are "Either Bill Clinton or George W. Bush was president when the World Trade Center towers were destroyed" and "Bush was not president at that time." The conclusion follows logically: "Therefore, Bill Clinton was president when those buildings were destroyed."

Question 18

An element is a collection of atoms of the same type. Each atom contains three fundamental particles-a proton, a neutron, and an electron. The protons and neutrons are in the center, or nucleus, of the atom. Protons have a positive charge, while neutrons have no electric charge. The electrons have a negative charge and orbit about the nucleus at a specific distance. Edward F. Albin, Earth Science Made Easy
A) Argument; conclusion: An element is a collection of atoms of the same type.
B) Argument; conclusion: The electrons have a negative charge ... specific distance.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument; conclusion: Each atom contains ... an electron.
E) Argument; conclusion: The protons and neutrons ... of the atom.

Accepted Answer

The passage provides factual information about the structure of an atom and the characteristics of its subatomic particles without presenting an argument or drawing a conclusion.

Question 19

James Bloomfield, the widely respected expert on art authentication, says that the painting recently discovered in the basement of the art museum is a genuine Picasso. Therefore, we conclude that the painting is indeed a genuine Picasso.
A) Deductive, invalid.
B) Inductive, weak.
C) Deductive, valid.
D) Inductive, cogent.
E) Inductive, strong.

Accepted Answer

The argument is inductive because it relies on the expertise of James Bloomfield to support the conclusion. It is strong because the premise provides substantial support for the conclusion, given Bloomfield's reputation as an expert.

Question 20

The world-wide disappearance of frogs may be the result of agricultural runoff. Scientists have shown that runoff rich in fertilizer causes a pronounced increase in the algae of lakes and ponds. Snails then gorge themselves on the algae, causing parasites living inside them to produce huge quantities of eggs. When the eggs hatch, the parasites infect young frogs, causing severe deformation of their limbs.
A) Nonargument.
B) Argument; conclusion: Snails then gorge themselves ... huge quantities of eggs.
C) Argument; conclusion: The world-wide disappearance ... agricultural runoff.
D) Argument; conclusion: When the eggs hatch ... severe deformation of their limbs.
E) Argument; conclusion: Scientists have shown ... in the algae of lakes and ponds.

Accepted Answer

This is an argument as it presents a conclusion supported by evidence. The conclusion is that the world-wide disappearance of frogs may be the result of agricultural runoff. The evidence presented is that runoff rich in fertilizer causes an increase in algae, which in turn leads to the proliferation of parasites that infect young frogs and cause severe limb deformation.

Quiz 1: Basic Concepts

Some over-the-counter medicines should not be given to very young children. For example, cold medicines contain decongestants and antihistamines. These substances raise blood pressure and heart rate. If an overdose should occur in a young child, the result can be fatal.

As the universe expands, it gets colder and colder. Furthermore, this expansion will continue for ever and ever. Therefore, at some point in the future the universe will become too cold to support human life, and all humans will perish.

Given that x2 + 2x = 15. It follows that x = 3.

Canada is similar in many ways to the United States. Both countries share the same language, values, and a free market economy. Also, they share a common border. Therefore, the Canadian flag must look a lot like the U.S. flag.

No drug cartels are legal operations, so no legal operations are enterprises that engage in smuggling, because all drug cartels are enterprises that engage in smuggling.

If the Big Bang theory is correct, then the universe is billions of years old. And if the Big Bang theory is correct, then the universe was not created in six days. Thus, if the universe is billions of years old, then it was not created in six days.

Graffiti painted on that vacant building says "Boycott Meat." Therefore, it's clear that we should all become vegetarians.

The engraved plate beneath this painting in the art museum says "Monet." Therefore, the painting must be the work of Monet.

Either Bill Clinton or George W. Bush was president when the World Trade Center towers were destroyed. But Bush was not president at that time. Therefore, Bill Clinton was president when those buildings were destroyed.

James Bloomfield, the widely respected expert on art authentication, says that the painting recently discovered in the basement of the art museum is a genuine Picasso. Therefore, we conclude that the painting is indeed a genuine Picasso.

Given that x² + 2x = 15. It follows that x = 3.